Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-nr4z6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-19T16:39:36.830Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Strong Lensing by Galaxies: Past Highlights, Current Status, and Future Prospects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 March 2024

Anowar J. Shajib Open the ORCID record for Anowar J. Shajib [Opens in a new window]
Anowar J. Shajib*
Affiliation:
Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA NHFP Einstein Fellow
*
Email: ajshajib@uchicago.edu
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Galaxy-scale strong lensing is a powerful tool in Astrophysics and Cosmology, enabling studies of massive galaxies’ internal structure, their formation and evolution, stellar initial mass function, and cosmological parameters. In this conference proceeding, we highlight key findings from the past decade in astrophysical applications of strong lensing at the galaxy scale. We then briefly summarize the present status of discovery and analyses of new samples from recent or ongoing surveys. Finally, we offer insights into anticipated developments in the upcoming era of big data shaping the future of this field, thanks to the Rubin, Euclid, and Roman observatories.

Keywords

Strong lensinggalaxies
Type
Contributed Paper
Information
Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union , Volume 18 , Symposium S381: Strong Gravitational Lensing in the Era of Big Data , December 2022 , pp. 3 - 12
Check for updates
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of International Astronomical Union

References

Adam, A., Coogan, A., Malkin, N., Legin, R., Perreault-Levasseur, L., Hezaveh, Y., & Bengio, Y. 2022, Posterior samples of source galaxies in strong gravitational lenses with score-based priors. arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2211.03812.Google Scholar
Agnello, A., Grillo, C., Jones, T., Treu, T., Bonamigo, M., & Suyu, S. H. 2018, Discovery and first models of the quadruply lensed quasar sdss j1433+6007. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 474(3), 3391–3396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akhazhanov, A., More, A., Amini, A., Hazlett, C., Treu, T., Birrer, S., Shajib, A., Liao, K., Lemon, C., Agnello, A., Nord, B., Aguena, M., Allam, S., Andrade-Oliveira, F., Annis, J., Brooks, D., Buckley-Geer, E., Burke, D. L., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., Choi, A., Conselice, C., Costanzi, M., da Costa, L. N., Pereira, M. E. S., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Dietrich, J. P., Doel, P., Everett, S., Ferrero, I., Finley, D. A., Flaugher, B., Frieman, J., Garca-Bellido, J., Gerdes, D. W., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gschwend, J., Gutierrez, G., Hinton, S. R., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., James, D. J., Kim, A. G., Kuehn, K., Kuropatkin, N., Lahav, O., Lima, M., Lin, H., Maia, M. A. G., March, M., Menanteau, F., Miquel, R., Morgan, R., Palmese, A., Paz-Chinchón, F., Pieres, A., Plazas Malagón, A. A., Sanchez, E., Scarpine, V., Serrano, S., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., To, C., Varga, T. N., Weller, J., & (DES Collaboration) 2022, Finding quadruply imaged quasars with machine learning - I. Methods. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 513(2), 2407–2421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auger, M. W., Treu, T., Bolton, A. S., Gavazzi, R., Koopmans, L. V. E., Marshall, P. J., Bundy, K., & Moustakas, L. A. 2009, The sloan lens acs survey. ix. colors, lensing, and stellar masses of early-type galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 705(2), 1099–1115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biggio, L., Vernardos, G., Galan, A., Peel, A., & Courbin, F. 2023, Modeling lens potentials with continuous neural fields in galaxy-scale strong lenses. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 675, A125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birrer, S. & Amara, A. 2018, lenstronomy: Multi-purpose gravitational lens modelling software package. Physics of the Dark Universe, 22, 189–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birrer, S., Shajib, A. J., Gilman, D., Galan, A., Aalbers, J., Millon, M., Morgan, R., Pagano, G., Park, J. W., Teodori, L., Tessore, N., Ueland, M., Vyvere, L. V. d., Wagner-Carena, S., Wempe, E., Yang, L., Ding, X., Schmidt, T., Sluse, D., Zhang, M., & Amara, A. 2021, lenstronomy ii: A gravitational lensing software ecosystem. JOSS, 6(62), 3283.Google Scholar
Bolton, A. S., Brownstein, J. R., Kochanek, C. S., Shu, Y., Schlegel, D. J., Eisenstein, D. J., Wake, D. A., Connolly, N., Maraston, C., Arneson, R. A., & Weaver, B. A. 2012, The BOSS Emission-Line Lens Survey. II. Investigating Mass-density Profile Evolution in the SLACS+BELLS Strong Gravitational Lens Sample. Astrophysical Journal, 757(1), 82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolton, A. S., Burles, S., Koopmans, L. V. E., Treu, T., & Moustakas, L. A. 2006, The sloan lens acs survey. i. a large spectroscopically selected sample of massive early-type lens galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 638, 703–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cappellari, M. 2016, Structure and kinematics of early-type galaxies from integral field spectroscopy. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 54, 597–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cappellari, M., McDermid, R. M., Alatalo, K., Blitz, L., Bois, M., Bournaud, F., Bureau, M., Crocker, A. F., Davies, R. L., Davis, T. A., de Zeeuw, P. T., Duc, P.-A., Emsellem, E., Khochfar, S., Krajnović, D., Kuntschner, H., Lablanche, P.-Y., Morganti, R., Naab, T., Oosterloo, T., Sarzi, M., Scott, N., Serra, P., Weijmans, A.-M., & Young, L. M. 2012, Systematic variation of the stellar initial mass function in early-type galaxies. Nature, 484(7395), 485–488.Google Scholar
Collett, T. E. 2015, The population of galaxy-galaxy strong lenses in forthcoming optical imaging surveys. Astrophysical Journal, 811, 20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delchambre, L., Krone-Martins, A., Wertz, O., Ducourant, C., Galluccio, L., Klüter, J., Mignard, F., Teixeira, R., Djorgovski, S. G., Stern, D., Graham, M. J., Surdej, J., Bastian, U., Wambsganss, J., Le Campion, J. F., & Slezak, E. 2019, Gaia GraL: Gaia DR2 Gravitational Lens Systems. III. A systematic blind search for new lensed systems. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 622, A165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutton, A. A. & Treu, T. 2014, The bulge-halo conspiracy in massive elliptical galaxies: implications for the stellar initial mass function and halo response to baryonic processes. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 438, 3594–3602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ertl, S., Schuldt, S., Suyu, S. H., Schmidt, T., Treu, T., Birrer, S., Shajib, A. J., & Sluse, D. 2023, TDCOSMO. X. Automated modeling of nine strongly lensed quasars and comparison between lens-modeling software. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 672, A2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Etherington, A., Nightingale, J. W., Massey, R., Cao, X., Robertson, A., Amorisco, N. C., Amvrosiadis, A., Cole, S., Frenk, C. S., He, Q., Li, R., & Tam, S.-I. 2022, Automated galaxy-galaxy strong lens modelling: No lens left behind. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 517(3), 3275–3302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferreras, I., Saha, P., Leier, D., Courbin, F., & Falco, E. E. 2010, Constraining the low-mass end of the initial mass function with gravitational lensing. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 409(1), L30–L34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hezaveh, Y. D., Levasseur, L. P., & Marshall, P. J. 2017, Fast automated analysis of strong gravitational lenses with convolutional neural networks. Nature, 548, 555–557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, C., Collett, T., Glazebrook, K., Buckley-Geer, E., Diehl, H. T., Lin, H., McCarthy, C., Qin, A. K., Odden, C., Caso Escudero, M., Dial, P., Yung, V. J., Gaitsch, S., Pellico, A., Lindgren, K. A., Abbott, T. M. C., Annis, J., Avila, S., Brooks, D., Burke, D. L., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., da Costa, L. N., De Vicente, J., Fosalba, P., Frieman, J., Garca-Bellido, J., Gaztanaga, E., Goldstein, D. A., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gschwend, J., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., Hoyle, B., James, D. J., Krause, E., Kuropatkin, N., Lahav, O., Lima, M., Maia, M. A. G., Marshall, J. L., Miquel, R., Plazas, A. A., Roodman, A., Sanchez, E., Scarpine, V., Serrano, S., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Sobreira, F., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., Vikram, V., Walker, A. R., Zhang, Y., & DES, Collaboration 2019,a An extended catalog of galaxy-galaxy strong gravitational lenses discovered in des using convolutional neural networks. Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 243a(1), 17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, C., Collett, T., Glazebrook, K., McCarthy, C., Qin, A. K., Abbott, T. M. C., Abdalla, F. B., Annis, J., Avila, S., Bechtol, K., Bertin, E., Brooks, D., Buckley-Geer, E., Burke, D. L., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., da Costa, L. N., Davis, C., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Diehl, H. T., Doel, P., Eifler, T. F., Flaugher, B., Frieman, J., Garca-Bellido, J., Gaztanaga, E., Gerdes, D. W., Goldstein, D. A., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gschwend, J., Gutierrez, G., Hartley, W. G., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., Hoyle, B., James, D. J., Kuehn, K., Kuropatkin, N., Lahav, O., Li, T. S., Lima, M., Lin, H., Maia, M. A. G., Martini, P., Miller, C. J., Miquel, R., Nord, B., Plazas, A. A., Sanchez, E., Scarpine, V., Schubnell, M., Serrano, S., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Sobreira, F., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., Vikram, V., Walker, A. R., Zhang, Y., Zuntz, J., & DES, Collaboration 2019,b Finding high-redshift strong lenses in des using convolutional neural networks. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 484b(4), 5330–5349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
La Barbera, F., Ferreras, I., Vazdekis, A., de la Rosa, I. G., de Carvalho, R. R., Trevisan, M., Falcón-Barroso, J., & Ricciardelli, E. 2013, Spider viii - constraints on the stellar initial mass function of early-type galaxies from a variety of spectral features. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 433(4), 3017–3047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemon, C., Anguita, T., Auger-Williams, M. W., Courbin, F., Galan, A., McMahon, R., Neira, F., Oguri, M., Schechter, P., Shajib, A., Treu, T., Agnello, A., & Spiniello, C. 2023, Gravitationally lensed quasars in Gaia - IV. 150 new lenses, quasar pairs, and projected quasars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 520(3), 3305–3328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mishra-Sharma, S. & Yang, G. Strong Lensing Source Reconstruction Using Continuous Neural Fields. In Machine Learning for Astrophysics 2022, 34.Google Scholar
Morningstar, W. R., Perreault Levasseur, L., Hezaveh, Y. D., Blandford, R., Marshall, P., Putzky, P., Rueter, T. D., Wechsler, R., & Welling, M. 2019, Data-driven Reconstruction of Gravitationally Lensed Galaxies Using Recurrent Inference Machines. Astrophysical Journal, 883(1), 14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mukherjee, S., Koopmans, L. V. E., Metcalf, R. B., Tortora, C., Schaller, M., Schaye, J., Vernardos, G., & Bellagamba, F. 2021, Seagle - ii. constraints on feedback models in galaxy formation from massive early-type strong-lens galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 504, 3455–3477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, S. T., Fassnacht, C. D., Djorgovski, S. G., Blandford, R. D., Matthews, K., Neugebauer, G., Pearson, T. J., Readhead, A. C. S., Smith, J. D., Thompson, D. J., Womble, D. S., Browne, I. W. A., Wilkinson, P. N., Nair, S., Jackson, N., Snellen, I. A. G., Miley, G. K., de Bruyn, A. G., & Schilizzi, R. T. 1995, 1608+656: A Quadruple-Lens System Found in the CLASS Gravitational Lens Survey. Astrophysical Journal Letters, 447, L5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarro, J. F., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. 1996, The structure of cold dark matter halos. Astrophysical Journal, 462, 563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarro, J. F., Frenk, C. S., & White, S. D. M. 1997, A universal density profile from hierarchical clustering. Astrophysical Journal, 490, 493–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nightingale, J., Hayes, R., Kelly, A., Amvrosiadis, A., Etherington, A., He, Q., Li, N., Cao, X., Frawley, J., Cole, S., Enia, A., Frenk, C., Harvey, D., Li, R., Massey, R., Negrello, M., & Robertson, A. 2021, PyAutoLens: Open-Source Strong Gravitational Lensing. The Journal of Open Source Software, 6(58), 2825.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oguri, M. & Marshall, P. J. 2010, Gravitationally lensed quasars and supernovae in future wide-field optical imaging surveys. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 405, 2579–2593.Google Scholar
Oldham, L. J. & Auger, M. W. 2018, Dark matter contraction and stellar-mass-to-light ratio gradients in massive early-type galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 476(1), 133–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poh, J., Samudre, A., Ćiprijanović, A., Nord, B., Khullar, G., Tanoglidis, D., & Frieman, J. A. 2022, Strong Lensing Parameter Estimation on Ground-Based Imaging Data Using Simulation-Based Inference. arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2211.05836.Google Scholar
Posacki, S., Cappellari, M., Treu, T., Pellegrini, S., & Ciotti, L. 2015, The stellar initial mass function of early-type galaxies from low to high stellar velocity dispersion: homogeneous analysis of atlas3d and sloan lens acs galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 446(1), 493–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Remus, R.-S., Dolag, K., Naab, T., Burkert, A., Hirschmann, M., Hoffmann, T. L., & Johansson, P. H. 2017, The co-evolution of total density profiles and central dark matter fractions in simulated early-type galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 464(3), 3742–3756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruff, A. J., Gavazzi, R., Marshall, P. J., Treu, T., Auger, M. W., & Brault, F. 2011, The SL2S Galaxy-scale Lens Sample. II. Cosmic Evolution of Dark and Luminous Mass in Early-type Galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 727(2), 96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, T., Treu, T., Birrer, S., Shajib, A. J., Lemon, C., Millon, M., Sluse, D., Agnello, A., Anguita, T., Auger-Williams, M. W., McMahon, R. G., Motta, V., Schechter, P., Spiniello, C., Kayo, I., Courbin, F., Ertl, S., Fassnacht, C. D., Frieman, J. A., More, A., Schuldt, S., Suyu, S. H., Aguena, M., Andrade-Oliveira, F., Annis, J., Bacon, D., Bertin, E., Brooks, D., Burke, D. L., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., Conselice, C., Costanzi, M., da Costa, L. N., Pereira, M. E. S., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Doel, P., Everett, S., Ferrero, I., Friedel, D., Garca-Bellido, J., Gaztanaga, E., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gschwend, J., Gutierrez, G., Hinton, S. R., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., James, D. J., Kuehn, K., Lahav, O., Menanteau, F., Miquel, R., Palmese, A., Paz-Chinchón, F., Pieres, A., Plazas Malagón, A. A., Prat, J., Rodriguez-Monroy, M., Romer, A. K., Sanchez, E., Scarpine, V., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Suchyta, E., Tarle, G., To, C., & Varga, T. N. 2022, Strides: Automated uniform models for 30 quadruply imaged quasars. arXiv e-prints.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuldt, S., Suyu, S. H., Meinhardt, T., Leal-Taixé, L., Cañameras, R., Taubenberger, S., & Halkola, A. 2021, HOLISMOKES. IV. Efficient mass modeling of strong lenses through deep learning. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 646, A126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shajib, A. J., Birrer, S., Treu, T., Agnello, A., Buckley-Geer, E. J., Chan, J. H. H., Christensen, L., Lemon, C., Lin, H., Millon, M., Poh, J., Rusu, C. E., Sluse, D., Spiniello, C., Chen, G. C. F., Collett, T., Courbin, F., Fassnacht, C. D., Frieman, J., Galan, A., Gilman, D., More, A., Anguita, T., Auger, M. W., Bonvin, V., McMahon, R., Meylan, G., Wong, K. C., Abbott, T. M. C., Annis, J., Avila, S., Bechtol, K., Brooks, D., Brout, D., Burke, D. L., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., Castander, F. J., Costanzi, M., da Costa, L. N., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Dietrich, J. P., Doel, P., Drlica-Wagner, A., Evrard, A. E., Finley, D. A., Flaugher, B., Fosalba, P., Garca-Bellido, J., Gerdes, D. W., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gschwend, J., Gutierrez, G., Hollowood, D. L., Honscheid, K., Huterer, D., James, D. J., Jeltema, T., Krause, E., Kuropatkin, N., Li, T. S., Lima, M., MacCrann, N., Maia, M. A. G., Marshall, J. L., Melchior, P., Miquel, R., Ogando, R. L. C., Palmese, A., Paz-Chinchón, F., Plazas, A. A., Romer, A. K., Roodman, A., Sako, M., Sanchez, E., Santiago, B., Scarpine, V., Schubnell, M., Scolnic, D., Serrano, S., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Suchyta, E., Tarle, G., Thomas, D., Walker, A. R., & Zhang, Y. 2020, Strides: a 3.9 per cent measurement of the hubble constant from the strong lens system des j0408-5354. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 494(4), 6072–6102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shajib, A. J., Birrer, S., Treu, T., Auger, M. W., Agnello, A., Anguita, T., Buckley-Geer, E. J., Chan, J. H. H., Collett, T. E., Courbin, F., Fassnacht, C. D., Frieman, J., Kayo, I., Lemon, C., Lin, H., Marshall, P. J., McMahon, R., More, A., Morgan, N. D., Motta, V., Oguri, M., Ostrovski, F., Rusu, C. E., Schechter, P. L., Shanks, T., Suyu, S. H., Meylan, G., Abbott, T. M. C., Allam, S., Annis, J., Avila, S., Bertin, E., Brooks, D., Carnero Rosell, A., Carrasco Kind, M., Carretero, J., Cunha, C. E., da Costa, L. N., De Vicente, J., Desai, S., Doel, P., Flaugher, B., Fosalba, P., Garca-Bellido, J., Gerdes, D. W., Gruen, D., Gruendl, R. A., Gutierrez, G., Hartley, W. G., Hollowood, D. L., Hoyle, B., James, D. J., Kuehn, K., Kuropatkin, N., Lahav, O., Lima, M., Maia, M. A. G., March, M., Marshall, J. L., Melchior, P., Menanteau, F., Miquel, R., Plazas, A. A., Sanchez, E., Scarpine, V., Sevilla-Noarbe, I., Smith, M., Soares-Santos, M., Sobreira, F., Suchyta, E., Swanson, M. E. C., Tarle, G., & Walker, A. R. 2019, Is every strong lens model unhappy in its own way? uniform modelling of a sample of 13 quadruply+ imaged quasars. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 483, 5649–5671.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shajib, A. J., Treu, T., Birrer, S., & Sonnenfeld, A. 2021, Dark matter haloes of massive elliptical galaxies at z ∼ 0.2 are well described by the navarro-frenk-white profile. MNRAS, 503(2), 2380–2405.Google Scholar
Shajib, A. J., Vernardos, G., Collett, T. E., Motta, V., Sluse, D., Williams, L. L. R., Saha, P., Birrer, S., Spiniello, C., & Treu, T. 2022, Strong lensing by galaxies.Google Scholar
Smith, R. J., Lucey, J. R., & Conroy, C. 2015, The sinfoni nearby elliptical lens locator survey: discovery of two new low-redshift strong lenses and implications for the initial mass function in giant early-type galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 449, 3441–3457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Chan, J. H. H., Shu, Y., More, A., Oguri, M., Suyu, S. H., Wong, K. C., Lee, C.-H., Coupon, J., Yonehara, A., Bolton, A. S., Jaelani, A. T., Tanaka, M., Miyazaki, S., & Komiyama, Y. 2018, Survey of gravitationally-lensed objects in hsc imaging (sugohi). i. automatic search for galaxy-scale strong lenses. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, 70, S29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Gavazzi, R., Suyu, S. H., Treu, T., & Marshall, P. J. 2013, The sl2s galaxy-scale lens sample. iii. lens models, surface photometry, and stellar masses for the final sample. Astrophysical Journal, 777, 97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Li, S.-S., Despali, G., Shajib, A. J., & Taylor, E. N. 2023, Strong lensing selection effects. arXiv e-prints, arXiv:2301.13230.Google Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Treu, T., Gavazzi, R., Marshall, P. J., Auger, M. W., Suyu, S. H., Koopmans, L. V. E., & Bolton, A. S. 2012, Evidence for dark matter contraction and a salpeter initial mass function in a massive early-type galaxy. Astrophysical Journal, 752, 163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Treu, T., Marshall, P. J., Suyu, S. H., Gavazzi, R., Auger, M. W., & Nipoti, C. 2015, The sl2s galaxy-scale lens sample. v. dark matter halos and stellar imf of massive early-type galaxies out to redshift 0.8. Astrophysical Journal, 800, 94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonnenfeld, A., Wang, W., & Bahcall, N. 2019, Hyper suprime-cam view of the cmass galaxy sample. halo mass as a function of stellar mass, size, and sérsic index. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 622, A30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spiniello, C., Koopmans, L. V. E., Trager, S. C., Czoske, O., & Treu, T. 2011, The x-shooter lens survey - i. dark matter domination and a salpeter-type initial mass function in a massive early-type galaxy. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 417(4), 3000–3009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spiniello, C., Trager, S., Koopmans, L. V. E., & Conroy, C. 2014, The stellar imf in early-type galaxies from a non-degenerate set of optical line indices. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 438(2), 1483–1499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tran, K.-V. H., Harshan, A., Glazebrook, K., Keerthi Vasan, G. C., Jones, T., Jacobs, C., Kacprzak, G. G., Barone, T. M., Collett, T. E., Gupta, A., Henderson, A., Kewley, L. J., Lopez, S., Nanayakkara, T., Sanders, R. L., & Sweet, S. M. 2022, The agel survey: Spectroscopic confirmation of strong gravitational lenses in the des and decals fields selected using convolutional neural networks. The Astronomical Journal, 164, 148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treu, T. 2010, Strong lensing by galaxies. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 48, 87–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treu, T., Auger, M. W., Koopmans, L. V. E., Gavazzi, R., Marshall, P. J., & Bolton, A. S. 2010, The initial mass function of early-type galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 709(2), 1195–1202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Y., Vogelsberger, M., Xu, D., Mao, S., Springel, V., Li, H., Barnes, D., Hernquist, L., Pillepich, A., Marinacci, F., Pakmor, R., Weinberger, R., & Torrey, P. 2020, Early-type galaxy density profiles from illustristng - i. galaxy correlations and the impact of baryons. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 491(4), 5188–5215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, K. C., Chan, J. H. H., Chao, D. C. Y., Jaelani, A. T., Kayo, I., Lee, C.-H., More, A., & Oguri, M. 2022, Survey of Gravitationally lensed objects in HSC Imaging (SuGOHI). VIII. New galaxy-scale lenses from the HSC SSP. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan, 74(5), 1209–1219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, D., Springel, V., Sluse, D., Schneider, P., Sonnenfeld, A., Nelson, D., Vogelsberger, M., & Hernquist, L. 2017, The inner structure of early-type galaxies in the illustris simulation. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 469(2), 1824–1848.CrossRefGoogle Scholar