¹ Tsuneko, Tsukitani, Tōru, Seyama and Satoshi, Shimura, ‘The Shakuhachi: the instrument and its music, change and diversification’, Contemporary music review 8/2 (1994): 103–129Google Scholar

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⁴ Nelson, Steven G., ‘Court and Religious Music (1): History of gagaku and shōmyō’, in The Ashgate Research Companion, 35–48Google Scholar

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⁹ Tone, Takahashi, ‘Tozan-ryu: And innovation of the shakuhachi tradition from the Fuke-shu to secularism’ (PhD diss., The Florida State University, 1990): 117Google Scholar

¹⁰ Nakatsuka Chikuzen, Kinko-ryū shakuhachi shikan [A personal view of Kinko school shakuhachi] (Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo Sha, 1979): 95–102Google Scholar

¹¹ Olafsson, Torsten, ‘Early Seventeenth-Century Ascetic Shakuhachi Ideology: The Kaidō Honsoku. A Komosō's Fuke Shakuhachi Credo. Dated 1628’ (MA thesis, University of Copenhagen, 1987/R 2003): 1Google Scholar

¹² Satoshi, Shimura, ‘Chamber Music for Syakuhati’, in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, ed. Robert C. Provine, Yoshihiko tokumaru and John L. Witzleben (New York: Routledge, 2002): 701–703Google Scholar

¹³ Linder, Gunnar, ‘Deconstructing Tradition in Japanese Music: A Study of Shakuhachi, Historical Authenticity and Transmission of Tradition’ (PhD diss., Stockholm University, 2012)Google Scholar

¹⁴ Administrator of a Zen temple.

¹⁵ Takahashi, ‘Tozan ryū’, 119Google Scholar

¹⁶ Lee, Riley K., ‘Yearning for the Bell: A Study of Transmission in the Shakuhachi Honkyoku Tradition’ (PhD diss., University of Sydney, 1993): 151Google Scholar

¹⁷ Tsukitani, ‘The shakuhachi and its music’, 150–152Google Scholar

¹⁸ The Music Investigation Committee was authorized by the government in 1879. The institute changed its name to Tokyo School of Music [ ] in 1887, and in 1952 it became the Music Department of the Tokyo University of Fine Arts [ ].

¹⁹ The Confucian philospher Xun Zi (c. 312–230 bce) devotes a whole chapter to this matter, Yue lun [ , On music], in his eponymous work, Xunzi. See Xunzi: A translation and study of the complete works, transl. by John Knobloch (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1988–90).

²⁰ Miller, Richard C., ‘Music and Musicology in the Engineering of National Identity in Meiji Japan: Modernization Strategies of the Music Investigation Committee, 1870–1900’ (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 2004): 27Google Scholar

²¹ Nomura was a scholar of ancient Japanese literature and culture.

²² Chiba Yūko, Doremi o eranda nihonjin [When the Japanese chose ‘do re mi’] (Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo sha, 2007)Google Scholar

²³ The first volume was followed by two further ones, in 1882 and 1883. The volumes were originally published by Monbu Ongaku Torisirabe Gakari, in Tokyo.

²⁴ Miller, ‘Music and Musicology’, 65–73Google Scholar

²⁵ Eppstein, Ury, The Beginnings of Western Music in Meiji Era Japan (Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1994)Google Scholar

²⁶ Miller, ‘Music and Musicology’, 82Google Scholar

²⁷ Miller, ‘Music and Musicology’, 59–114Google Scholar

Masafumi, Ogawa, ‘Early Nineteenth-Century American Influences on the Beginning of Japanese Public Music Education: An Analysis and Comparison of Selected Music Textbooks Published in Japan and the United States’ (DMus Ed diss., Indiana University, 2000)Google Scholar

²⁸ Tsukitani Tsuneko, Shakuhachi kotenhonkyoku no kenkyû [Research on old honkyoku] (Tokyo: Shuppan geijutsu sha, 2000)Google Scholar

Shimura Satoshi, Kokan shakuhachi no gakkigaku [Organlogy of the ancient shakuhachi] (Tokyo: Shuppan geijutsu sha): 106–113Google Scholar

²⁹ Ueno Katami, Shakuhachi no rekishi [The history of the shakuhachi] (Tokyo: Shuppan Geijitsusha, 2002): 241Google Scholar

³⁰ A Japanese three-stringed long-neck lute.

³¹ Oeda Ryūhō, Gayū manroku [ , Miscellaneous records of elegant pastimes] (Osaka, 1763, originally published in 1755)Google Scholar

Lee, ‘Yearning for the Bell’, 1993Google Scholar

³² The Sankyoku ensemble consists of the shakuachi, shamisen and koto (13-string zither).

³³ Ueno, Shakuhachi no rekishi, 259–260Google Scholar

³⁴ The holes of the shakuhachi are counted from the hole nearest the root end of the instrument, four in the front and the thumbhole as the fifth hole.

³⁵ Sadakichi, Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 1–6Google Scholar

³⁶ Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 6Google Scholar

³⁷ Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 6Google Scholar

³⁸ Shimura, Kokan shakuhachi, 108–109Google Scholar

³⁹ Toya Deiko, Komusō shakuhachi seikan hifu [Secret teachings in the making of komusō shakuhachi] (Tokyo: Komusō Kenkyū Kai, 1987)Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Yoshinori, Andō, Tsuneko, Tsukitani, Masaichirō, Maeda, ‘Shakuhachi no kōzō ni tsuite’ [Study of the construction of shakuhachi], in Ongaku to ongakugaku, ed. Sumikura Ichirō et al. (Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo sha, 1986): 59Google Scholar

⁴¹ Shimura, Kokan shakuhachi, 88–90Google Scholar

⁴² Day, Kiku, ‘Remembrance of Things Past: Creating a Contemporary Repertoire for the Archaic Jinashi Shakuhachi’ (PhD diss., University of London, 2010)Google Scholar

⁴³ Day, ‘Remembrence of Things Past’, 75–88Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ Based on interviews conducted by the author in Japan in 2007.

⁴⁵ The Myōan kyōkai (Myōan group) is a loose organization of shakuhachi players that continued the praxis of shakuhachi playing as a religious act.

⁴⁶ Folk songs are often accompanied by shamisen, shakuhashi and taiko (Japanese drum).

⁴⁷ Nakao Ri'ichirō (Tozan). Shakuhachi suisō hitorigeiko [The solitary learning guide to shakuhachi playing] (Osaka: Kashiwara Keibundō, 1908)Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Takahashi, Tozan-ryū, 142Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Kawase Fukudō, Kyokufu: Shakuhachi hayashinan [Score book: Quick guide to learning the shakuhachi] (Nagoya: Shinonone dō. 1892)Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Kawase, Kyokufu, 2Google Scholar

⁵¹ This observation is based on research on the large collection of shakuhachi manuals from the nineteenth and early twentieth century at Hosshinji Temple and National Diet library in Tokyo, in May 2012.

⁵² Nagauta is a music genre used in the kabuki theatre, although it is also used as music for voice and shamisen.

⁵³ The solo repertoire of the komusō monks, honkyoku, is usually in free rhythm.

⁵⁴ Traditional Japanese art is still taught in the iemoto (guild) system, where the iemoto (master or head of a school) has a style that all pupils follow. Studies with another master are generally frowned upon. The ryūha or schools may have their own variation of the notation system.

⁵⁵ Yamazaki Akasaburō, Seisoku shakuhachi jizaihō [Systematic Shakuhachi self-learning manual] (Tokyo: Kokkadō, 1897)Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Kurosawa Kinko I (1710–1771) was a komusō monk who wandered around Japan collecting 36 pieces that became the basis for the Kinko Ryū shakuhachi school's repertoire. At some point in the eighteenth century the ro tsu re system began to be used for the Kinko repertoire. It is not clear exactly when nor who the inventor of the system was.

⁵⁷ The Chikuho ryū (school) still teaches in the fu ho u [ ] system, used during the Edo period by the komusō monks.

⁵⁸ Shikama Kodatsu, Kokon zakkyokushū [Collection of past and present music] (Tokyo: Kyobons shōsha, 1892)Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Machida Ōen, Ongaku dokushū zensho: Shakuhachi dokushū [Complete self-study of music: Shakuhachi self-study] (Tokyo: Kubota Shoten, 1915)Google Scholar

⁶⁰ A French notation system for sight-singing, based on a system proposed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1742 and modified by Pierre Galin, Aimé Paris and Émile Chevé in the nineteenth century.

⁶¹ Momotari Noboru, Ongaku zenshō, dai ni hen: Shakuhachi no shiori [The complete book on music, Volume 2: Guidebook to shakuhachi] (Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1984)Google Scholar

⁶² The assumption that this is a print mistake has not been confirmed.

⁶³ Yamazaki Akasaburō, Seisoku shakuhachi jizaihō [Systematic shakuhachi self-learning manual] (Tokyo: Kokkadō, 1897): 1Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Here I suspect the author is writing about how to play sankyoku pieces with koto and shamisen, where rhythm and being ‘together’ is a crucial aspect – as it is in any ensemble playing.

⁶⁵ Yamazaki, Seisoku shakuhachi jizaihō, 3Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Chikusei Sanshi, Shakuhachi sokusei jizai [Shakuhachi intensive learning guide] (Tokyo: Kashitarō, 1898)Google Scholar

⁶⁷ There are no page numbers in this publication.

⁶⁸ There are no page numbers in this publication.

⁶⁹ Takahashi, Tozan ryū, 152Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Eishi, Kikkawa, ‘Shamisen no sugagaki’ [Melodies for shamisen], Kikan Hōgaku 21 (1979): 58–62Google Scholar

⁷¹ Jansen, Marius B., The making of modern Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000)Google Scholar

⁷² Based on interviews with roughly 80 shakuhachi players in Japan, conducted by the author between 2007 and 2012.

⁷³ Nakao Tozan, Tozan ryū shakuhachi onpu: Kaisetsu [An exposition of Tozan school shakuhachi notation] (Tokyo: Jyūjiya, 1908)Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Shimura, Kokan shakuhachi, 108–109Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 1Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Sankyoku, 14 (1922): 5.

⁷⁷ Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 6Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Maru, ‘Shakuhachi seisakuhō’ 6Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Chiba Yūko, Doremi, 6–7Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Chiba, Doremi, 5Google Scholar

⁸¹ Taiko drumming is also popular outside Japan, particularly in the USA, Australia and UK.