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Folk magic in the Philippines, 1611–39
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 July 2023
Abstract
While studies of commerce and trade in Manila's ‘Golden Age’ are common, the impact of the city's multiethnic society on the daily lives of its inhabitants has often been harder to gauge. Based on 98 Inquisition cases, this article examines the widespread use of folk magic in colonial Manila, offering new insights into cultural interactions and inviting new reflections on the nature and extent of colonial domination. Folk magic—also known as hechicería—was an important part of cultural life within Spanish communities across the empire in the early modern period. Encompassing a variety of different practices, including the use of love charms, luck charms, spell-casting, and divination, it offered individuals opportunities to mediate their relationships, particularly with members of the opposite sex. These practices connected European folk traditions with Asian knowledge of botany, medicine, and spirituality to fulfil the needs of the Spanish community for magic. At the same time, this blending of Spanish and Asian cultures was subversive of colonial authority. Folk magic practices challenged the progression of ‘pious imperialism’ that pitted Christianity against indigenous traditions, creating spaces of cultural exchange where the balance of power between cultures was more evenly felt than often assumed.
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- Research Article
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- Copyright © The National University of Singapore, 2023
Footnotes
This article has benefited from feedback, comments, and conversation with many colleagues at Cambridge and further afield. Thanks in particular to: Sujit Sivasundaram, Birgit Tremml Warner, Martin Dusinberre, Melissa Calaresu, and members of the Finella reading group at Cambridge.
References
1 Archivo General de la Nación (hereafter AGN), Inquisición, vol. 336, exp. 1, fol. 73r.
2 The Archivo General de la Nación in Mexico is the main repository for Inquisition records related to the Philippines in the 17th century. The Philippine branch of the Inquisition—established soon after the colony was founded—was a subordinate jurisdiction of the Mexican Inquisition, meaning that all cases needed to be referred back to Inquisitors in Mexico. These 98 cases were uncovered from an exhaustive search of these records for examples of folk magic practices; the cases are located in the archive as follows: AGN, Mexico City, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 1766, exps. 27, 28; caja 2721, exps. 3, 17; caja 3436, exp. 50; caja 3466, exps. 15, 17, 18, 24, 25; caja 4052, exps. 9, 29; caja 4128, exps. 11, 12; caja 5425, exps. 3, 45. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8; vol. 293, exps. 37, 65, 70, 72, 73, 74; vol. 298, exp. 10; vol. 333, exp. 16; vol. 336, exp. 1; vol. 355, exps. 25, 30, 31, 32; vol. 362, exps. 8, 33; vol. 461, exps. 8, 13. For more information on the history of the establishment of the Philippine Inquisition, see Angeles, F. Delor, ‘The Philippine Inquisition: A survey’, Philippine Studies 28, 3 (1980): 253–83Google Scholar.
3 Lewis, Laura A., Hall of mirrors: Power, witchcraft, and caste in colonial Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Few, Martha, Women who live evil lives: Gender, religion, and the politics of power in colonial Guatemala (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Few, Martha, ‘Chocolate, sex, and disorderly women in late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth-century Guatemala’, Ethnohistory 52, 4 (2005): 673–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Megged, Amos, ‘The social significance of benevolent and malevolent gifts among single caste women in mid-seventeenth-century New Spain’, Journal of Family History 24, 4 (1999): 420–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Germeten, Nicole Von, ‘Sexuality, witchcraft, and honor in colonial Spanish America’, History Compass 9, 5 (2011): 374–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gutiérrez, Ramón A., ‘Women on top: The love magic of the Indian witches of New Mexico’, Journal of the History of Sexuality 16, 3 (2007): 373–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Silverblatt, Irene, Modern inquisitions: Peru and the colonial origins of the civilized world (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), pp. 163–7Google Scholar; Bristol, Joan Cameron, ‘From curing to witchcraft: Afro-Mexicans and the mediation of authority’, Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 7, 1 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Molina, Óscar Javier González, ‘Inquisición y hechicería novohispana: ideología y discurso en el proceso a Catalina de Miranda’, Revista de la Inquisición 17 (2013): 65–84Google Scholar; Alberro, Solange, ‘Herejes, brujas y beatas: mujeres ante el tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición de la Nueva España’, in Presencia y transparencia: la mujer en la historia de México, ed. Rodríguez, Ma. De Jesús et al. (México D.F.: El Colegio de México, 1987), pp. 83–98Google Scholar; Alberro, Solange, Inquisición y sociedad en México, 1571–1700 (México D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1988)Google Scholar.
4 The historiography of folk magic and superstition in Spain and its colonies is vast. In addition to the literature cited in the previous footnote, see for example: Ortega, María Helena Sánchez, ‘Sorcery and eroticism in love magic’, in Cultural encounters: The impact of the Inquisition in Spain and the New World, ed. Perry, Mary Elizabeth and Cruz, Anne J. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 58–87Google Scholar; Miguel, Juan Blazquez, Eros y Tánatos: Brujería, hechicería y superstición en España (Toledo: Editorial Arcano, 1989)Google Scholar; Tausiet, María, Urban magic in early modern Spain, trans. Howe, Susannah (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)Google Scholar; Knutsen, Gunnar W., Servants of Satan and masters of demons: The Spanish Inquisition's trials for superstition, Valencia and Barcelona, 1478–1700 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Henningson, Gustav, The witches’ advocate: Basque witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition (1609–1614) (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1980)Google Scholar.
5 Tausiet, Urban magic, p. 5; Sánchez Ortega, ‘Sorcery and eroticism’, pp. 58–9; Behar, Ruth, ‘Sexual witchcraft, colonialism, and women's powers: Views from the Mexican Inquisition’, in Sexuality and marriage in colonial Mexico, ed. Lavrin, Asunción (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), pp. 178–206Google Scholar.
6 Few, ‘Chocolate, sex, and disorderly women’, p. 674; Lewis, Hall of mirrors; Gutiérrez, ‘Women on top’, pp. 373–90.
7 María Tausiet argues that magic within urban environments should be ‘understood in a general sense as anything contrary to religion’. Tausiet, Urban magic, p. 3.
8 The more serious charge of brujería required proof of a pact with the devil; as should become apparent, this did not stop missionaries from interpreting hechicería cases as examples of witchcraft, it just meant that these cases were rarely tried under the more serious accusation of brujería.
9 In 1632, the Ayudante Salinas was sent back to Mexico to face trial for having bewitched Don Lorenzo de Olasso along with many of his servants, who all reported hearing voices, seeing visions, and experiencing other bodily complaints. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4128, exp. 19; caja 3466, exps. 15, 22, 24. Archivo Histórico Nacional (AHN), Colección Documentos de Indias (CDI), leg. 31, núms. 75, 76, 77. Four years later, a Javanese woman was burnt at the stake, having been accused of flying through the air, eating human flesh, and leading processions of more than a hundred witches—a case that we will return to in greater detail below. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 1766, exp. 28.
10 Henningson, The witches’ advocate, pp. 9–10; Blazquez Miguel, Eros y Tánatos, p. 249; Knutsen, Gunnar W., ‘Historias de lo sobernatural’, Estudis 38 (2012): 77–89Google Scholar; Darst, David H., ‘Witchcraft in Spain: The testimony of Martín de Castañega's Treatise on Superstition and Witchcraft (1529)’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 123, 5 (1979): 298–322Google Scholar; Alberro, ‘Herejes, brujas y beatas’, pp. 83–98.
11 Tausiet, Urban magic, pp. 3–4.
12 Ibid, p. 5.
13 Silverblatt, Modern inquisitions, pp. 163–4; Few, Women who live evil lives, pp. 10–11; Rodríguez, José Manuel, Urra, Natalia and Insulza, María Fernanda, ‘Un estudio de la hechicería amorosa en la Lima virreinal’, Atenea 509 (2014): 245–68Google Scholar; Gutiérrez, ‘Women on top’, p. 377.
14 Gutiérrez, ‘Women on top’, p. 377; Few, Women who live evil lives; Few, ‘Chocolate, sex, and disorderly women’, pp. 673–87; Megged, ‘The social significance of benevolent and malevolent gifts’, pp. 420–40; Behar, ‘Sexual witchcraft’, pp. 178–206; Noemí Quezada, ‘The Inquisition's repression of curanderos’, in Cultural encounters: The impact of the Inquisition in Spain and the New World, ed. Mary Elizabeth Perry and Anne J. Cruz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 41; Alberro, ‘Herejes, brujas y beatas’, pp. 83–98.
15 José Toribio Medina, El tribunal del santo oficio de la inquisición en las islas Filipinas (Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1899); Delor Angeles, ‘The Philippine Inquisition’, pp. 253–83. There is a chapter on the Philippine Inquisition in Henry Charles Lea, The Inquisition in the Spanish dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010 [1908]), pp. 299–318; however, Lea argues that the Philippines ‘accomplished so little for the faith’ and its records were ‘eventless’ for most of the 16th to 18th centuries.
16 Delor Angeles, ‘The Philippine Inquisition’, pp. 269–70.
17 Romain Bertrand, Le Long Remords de la conquête. Manille–Mexico–Madrid: l'affaire Diego de Ávila (1577–1580) (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2015); Romain Bertrand, ‘Where the devil stands: A microhistorical reading of empires as multiple moral worlds (Manila–Mexico, 1577–1580)’, Past & Present 242, 14 (2019): 83–109. See also Ryan Crewe, ‘Transpacific Mestizo: Religion and caste in the worlds of a Moluccan prisoner of the Mexican Inquisition’, Itinerario 39, 3 (2015): 463–85; Clive Griffin, ‘Volando sobre Manila: brujería, hechicería, odio y avaricia en la colonia española de las islas Filipinas a finales del siglo XVI’, Bulletin of Spanish Studies 92, 5 (2015): 699–723.
18 See also the recent work of David Max Findley, ‘Of two-tailed lizards: Spells, folk-knowledge, and navigating Manila, 1620–1650,’ Journal of Social History 56, 2 (2022): 294–325.
19 Cornelius Conover, Pious imperialism: Spanish rule and the cult of saints in Mexico City (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2019). Geoffrey Parker also used the term ‘messianic imperialism’, in The grand strategy of Philip II (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); and Geoffrey Parker, ‘Messianic visions in the Spanish monarchy, 1516–1598’, Calíope 8, 2 (2002): 5–24.
20 Matthew Restall, Seven myths of the Spanish conquest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 131–46.
21 R. Douglas Cope, The limits of racial domination: Plebeian society in colonial Mexico City, 1660–1720 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), pp. 10–11; Dana Leibsohn, ‘Dentro y fuera de los muros: Manila, ethnicity, and colonial cartography’, Ethnohistory 61, 2 (2014): 229–51.
22 Rebecca Earle, The body of the conquistador: Food, race and the colonial experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 10.
23 Mina García Soormally, Idolatry and the construction of the Spanish Empire (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2018), p. 19.
24 The term ‘Philippine indios’ refers to indigenous people of the Philippines who were recognised as subjects of the Spanish Crown. A lot of interesting research in recent decades has focused on the way in which Philippine communities adapted the tenets of Christianity into their own worldviews. See for example, Vicente L. Rafael, Contracting colonialism: Translation and Christian conversion in Tagalog society under early Spanish rule (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988); Mark Dizon, ‘Social and spiritual kinship in early-eighteenth-century missions on the Caraballo Mountains’, Philippine Studies 59, 3 (2011): 367–98; Mark Dizon, ‘Sumpong spirit beliefs, murder, and religious change among eighteenth-century Aeta and Ilongot in eastern central Luzon’, Philippine Studies 63, 1 (2015): 3–38; Charles J.H. Macdonald, ‘Folk Catholicism and pre-Spanish religions in the Philippines’, Philippine Studies 52, 1 (2004): 78–93.
25 Maestre de campo is a senior military rank within Spanish armies in the early modern period, second in command to the governor of the colony.
26 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 15; caja 4128, exp. 19.
27 J. Jorge Klor de Alva, ‘Colonizing souls: The failure of the Indian Inquisition and the rise of penitential discipline’, in Perry and Cruz, Cultural encounters, p. 4; Patricia Lopes Don, ‘Franciscans, Indian sorcerers, and the Inquisition in New Spain, 1536–1543’, Journal of World History 17, 1 (2006): 27–8.
28 Few, ‘Chocolate, sex, and disorderly women’, p. 674; Behar, ‘Sexual witchcraft’, pp. 178–206; Silverblatt, Peru and the colonial origins of the civilized world, pp. 163–4; Gutiérrez, ‘Women on top’, pp. 373–90.
29 Sánchez Ortega, ‘Sorcery and eroticism’, p. 83; Jeffrey R. Watt, ‘Love magic and the Inquisition: A case from seventeenth-century Italy’, Sixteenth Century Journal 41, 3 (2010): 685–6.
30 Watt, ‘Love magic and the Inquisition’, p. 685.
31 Tausiet, Urban magic, p. 63.
32 Gutiérrez, ‘Women on top’, p. 376.
33 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exps. 17, 18; caja 4052, exp. 29, fols. 15r–16v; caja 4128, exp. 12, fols. 15r–16v. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 9r, 23r, 29r, 38r, 92r, 93r, 123r; vol. 293, exp. 65; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 48r, 73r, 145r, 310r, 326r, 327r; vol. 362, exp. 33.
34 See for instance. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 17; caja 4052, exp. 29, fols. 15r-16v. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 123r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 48r.
35 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 4r.
36 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 11r.
37 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3436, exp. 50, fols. 18r–19v.
38 María Emma Mannarelli, Private passions and public sins: Men and women in seventeenth-century Lima, trans. Sidney Evans and Meredith D. Dodge (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007), pp. 41–2.
39 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 95r; vol. 293, exp. 74, fols. 435r.
40 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 113r.
41 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 355, exp. 30. Bertrand, Le Long Remords, p. 258.
42 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 8r.
43 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 84r.
44 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 38r, 75r, 96r.
45 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 74, fols. 435r.
46 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 17.
47 ‘Con dos te veo, con tres te ato, la sangre te bebo y el corazón te parto.’ AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4052, exp. 29, fols. 33r–34v; caja 5425, exp. 45. Bertrand, Le Long Remords, pp. 253–4. This charm is found throughout the Spanish world, see Megged, ‘Benevolent and malevolent gifts’, p. 428; Sánchez Ortega, ‘Sorcery and eroticism’, pp. 67–9; Mariana Masera and Santiago Cortés H., ‘Introducción’, in Relatos populares de la Inquisición Novohispana: Rito, magia y otras ‘supersticiones’, siglos XVII–XVIII, ed. Enrique Flores and Mariana Masera (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2010), p. 42; Jimena Gómez Villa, Vidas Apasionantes: heroínas, artistas y amantes en la historia de América Latina (Bogotá: Intermedio, 2002), p. 84; Eva Mendieta, ‘The role of language in accusations of witchcraft in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spain’, International Journal of Society, Culture and Language 5, 2 (2017): 110.
48 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 70.
49 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 18r, 19r, 20r, 25r, 27r, 125r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 3r, 4r, 45r, 73r.
50 See for example, Dioscoro S. Rabor, Philippine reptiles and amphibians (Quezon City: Pundasyon sa Pagpapaunlad ng Kaalaman sa Pagtuturo ng Agham, 1981), p. 30; Sophana Srichampa, ‘Thai amulets: Symbols of the practice of multi-faiths and cultures’, in Contemporary socio-cultural and political perspectives in Thailand, ed. Pranne Liamputtong (Dordrecht: Springer, 2014), p. 61; F. Bouza Brey, ‘El lagarto en la tradición popular gallega’, Revista de dialectología y tradiciones populares 5, 4 (1949): 543; E.C. Vansittart, ‘Present-day witchcraft in Italy’, The Antiquary 8 (1912): 91.
51 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 18r, 19r, 20r, 25r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 3r, 4r.
52 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 18r.
53 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 89r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 16r, 324r, 396r, 407r. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4128, exp. 12, fols. 1r–2v.
54 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 7r, 24r, 28r, 52r, 71r, 77r, 89r; vol. 293, exp. 72; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 311r, 324r; vol. 355, exp. 31, fols. 456r, 459r, exp. 32; vol. 461, exp. 13. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 2721, exp. 17. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 25.
55 Barbara Baert, ‘Around the sieve: Motif, symbol, hermeneutic’, Textile: Cloth and culture 17, 1 (2019): 4–27; Geoffrey Arnott, ‘Coscinomancy in Theocritus and Kazantzakis’, Mnemosyne 31, 1 (1978): 27–32; ‘Sieve and shears: Divination’, in A dictionary of superstitions, ed. Iona Opie and Moira Tatem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
56 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 355, exp. 31, 457r.
57 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3436, exp. 50, fols. 12r–12v.
58 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 298, exp. 10.
59 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exps. 70, 73.
60 An alcalde is a Spanish municipal magistrate. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 1r.
61 Archivo General de Indias (hereafter AGI), Patronato Real, leg. 47, ramos 6, 11, 15.
62 Alberro, ‘Herejes, brujas y beatas’, p. 88.
63 An alférez is a junior officer rank in the Spanish military. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 25r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 326r.
64 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 17; caja 4052, exp. 29, fols. 15r–16v. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 55r, 123r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 48r.
65 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 75r, 84r, 95r; vol. 293, exp. 37; vol. 298, exp. 10; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 311r.
66 Real Academia de la Historia (hereafter RAH), 9/3663, núm. 28: Relasión del alçamiento de los chinos en la ciudad de Manila por el mes de noviembre del año de 1639, causas del alçamiento y prinsipio del; Ryan Dominic Crewe, ‘Pacific purgatory: Spanish Dominicans, Chinese Sangleys, and the entanglement of mission and commerce in Manila, 1580–1620’, Journal of Early Modern History 19, 4 (2015): 348; Leibsohn, ‘Dentro y fuera de los muros’, pp. 229–51; Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila, siglos XVI–XVII (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), pp. 68–9.
67 Tausiet, Urban magic, p. 3.
68 Pedro Chirino, Relación de las islas Filipinas i de lo que en ellas an trabaiado los padres de la compañía de Jesús (Roma: Por Estevan Paulino, 1604), pp. 297–300; Biblioteca Nacional de España (hereafter BNE), mss. 3002, fols. 27v–29v: Pedro Fernández del Pulgar, Descripción de las Filipinas y de las Malucas e Historia del Archipiélago Maluco desde su descubrimiento. AGI, Filipinas, leg. 13, ramo 1, núm. 13; leg. 75, núms. 20, 23; Dizon, ‘Sumpong spirit beliefs’, pp. 3–38.
69 Laura Lee Junker, Raiding, trading, and feasting: The political economy of Philippine chiefdoms (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999), pp. 313–35.
70 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 13, ramo 1, núm. 13; leg. 75, núms. 20, 23.
71 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 75, núms. 20, 23.
72 Ibid.
73 Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4052, exp. 29.
74 A number of Spanish chroniclers provide evidence of extensive botanical and medical knowledge within Philippine communities. See ‘Boxer Codex’, The Lilly Library Digital Collections, http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/digital/collections/items/show/93, 34v, 37v–38r, 63r–63v; Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Ediciones Polifemo, 1997), pp. 264–5; Fr Diego de Bobadilla, ‘Relation of the Filipinas Islands’, in The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803: Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the Islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions […], ed. Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, 55 vols. (Cleveland, OH: AH Clark, 1903–9) [hereafter B&R], vol. 29, pp. 290, 293; Francisco Colín, Labor evangélica, ministerios apostólicos de los obreros de la compañía de Iesus, fundación y progressos de su provincia en las islas filipinas (Madrid: Por Ioseph Fernandez de Buendia, 1668), Lib. 1, pp. 48, 86, 98–102; Juan J. Delgado, ‘Historia General Sacroprofana, política y religiosa de las yslas de le Poniente llamadas philipinas’ [1751], mss. 7427, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Madrid.
75 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana. See also Leoncio Cabrero Fernández, ‘El Padre Juan I. Delgado, Creador de La Etnohistoria y Etnobotánica en Filipinas’, Revista Española de Antropología Americana, num. extraordinario (2003): 387–98.
76 Colín, Labor evangélica, Lib. 1, pp. 48, 86, 98–102.
77 Boxer Codex, fol. 34v; Morga, Suceso de las Islas Filipinas, pp. 264–5; RAH 9/2667, núm. 1: Sobre noticias de las islas Philipinas; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 27, núm 233; libro 285, núm. 1, fols. 30r–41v.
78 Boxer Codex, fols. 37v–38r.
79 Morga, Suceso de las Islas Filipinas, pp. 264–5.
80 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 95r.
81 Morga, Suceso de las Islas Filipinas, pp. 264–5.
82 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana, fols. 411r–412r.
83 Ibid., fol. 224r.
84 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 19r, 38r, 96r; vol. 293, exp. 74, fols. 435r, 437r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 12r, 329r; vol. 355, exp. 30, exp. 31, fols. 457r. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3466, exp. 15.
85 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 355, exp. 31, fols. 457r.
86 Boxer Codex, fols. 63r–63v.
87 Chirino, Relación de las islas Filipinas, p. 75; Francisco Ignacio Alcina, La historia de las islas e indios visayas, ed. María Luisa Martín-Merás and María Dolores Higueras (Madrid: Instituto Histórico de Marina, 1974), fol. 66r; Fr Juan de Plasencia, ‘Relation of the worship of the Tagalogs, their gods, and their burials and superstitions’, in B&R, vol. 7, p. 181; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 75, núm. 20.
88 Morga, Suceso de las Islas Filipinas, pp. 263–4.
89 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana, fol. 374r.
90 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 76, núm. 145.
91 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana, fol. 435r. Fr Diego de Bobadilla similarly marvelled at the quantities of buyo sold in Manila; see Bobadilla, ‘Relation of the Filipinas Islands’, pp. 300–301. On the estanco del buyo see AGI, Filipinas, leg. 27, núm. 214; leg. 190, núm. 2.
92 Alcina, La historia de las islas e indios visayas, fol. 65v.
93 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana, 435r.
94 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 74, fols. 438r; vol. 336, exp. 1, 48r.
95 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 30r, 55r, 90r, 123r; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 327r.
96 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4128, exp. 12, fols. 15r–16v.
97 Few, ‘Chocolate, sex, and disorderly women’, p. 678.
98 Ibid., pp. 678–9.
99 BNE, mss. 3002, fols. 27v–29v: Pedro Fernández del Pulgar, ‘Descripción de las Filipinas y de las Malucas e Historia del Archipiélago Maluco desde su descubrimiento’; Chirino, Relación de las islas Filipinas, pp. 296–301.
100 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 75, núm. 20. BNE, mss. 3002, fol. 28v: Pedro Fernández del Pulgar, Descripción de las Filipinas y de las Malucas e Historia del Archipiélago Maluco desde su descubrimiento.
101 83% of women accused of hechicería in 17th century Philippines sought help from other women, by comparison to just 27% of men.
102 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 1766, exp. 27.
103 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 362, exp. 8, Bertrand, Le Long Remords, p. 258.
104 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 3436, exp. 50, fols. 12r–12v; caja 3466, exp. 25, exp. 26.
105 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 298, exp. 10.
106 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4052, exp. 29, fols. 29r–30v.
107 Tausiet, Urban magic, p. 167.
108 Religious life in Manila has been discussed by a number of authors. See Doreen G. Fernandez, ‘Pompas y Solemnidades: Church celebrations in Spanish Manila and the native theater’, Philippine Studies 36, 4 (1988): 403–26; John Schumacher, ‘The Manila Synodal tradition: A brief history’, Philippine Studies 27, 3 (1979): 285–348; Juan Mesquida Oliver, ‘La población de Manila y las capellanías de misas de los españoles: libro de registros, 1642–1672’, Revista de Indias 70, 249 (2010): 469–500; Crewe, ‘Pacific purgatory’, pp. 337–65.
109 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 220, exp. 8, fols. 4r, 84r; vol. 355, exp. 31; vol. 336, exp. 1, fols. 76r, 78r. AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 1766, exp. 27.
110 Daniel T. Reff, ‘Making the land holy: The mission frontier in early medieval Europe and colonial Mexico’, in The spiritual conversion of the Americas, ed. James Muldoon (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), pp. 17–35.
111 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 13, ramo 1, núm. 13; leg. 75, núms. 20, 23.
112 Cayetano Sánchez Fuertes, ‘La Iglesia y sus relaciones con los Filipinos en los siglos XVI y XVII’, in España y el Pacífico: Legazpi, Tomo II, ed. Leoncio Cabrero (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, 2004), p. 323; John N. Schumacher, ‘Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its historical causes’, Philippine Studies 32, 3 (1984): 254.
113 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 13, ramo 1, núm. 13; leg. 75, núms. 20, 23.
114 Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu (hereafter ARSI), Rome, Phil. 5, fol. 107r: Carta Annua de la Vice Provincia de las Islas Philippinas desde el mes de junio de 1601 hasta el junio de 1602 años.
115 Bertrand, Le Long Remords, pp. 248–9; AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 33.
116 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 37; Bertrand, Le Long Remords, p. 248.
117 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 29; vol. 298, exp. 10. Bertrand, Le Long Remords, pp. 247, 310.
118 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 293, exp. 29.
119 Chirino, Relación de las islas Filipinas, pp. 300–301; BNE, mss. 3002, fols. 27v–29v: Pedro Fernández del Pulgar, ‘Descripción de las Filipinas y de las Malucas e Historia del Archipiélago Maluco desde su descubrimiento’; Fr Diego Aduarte, Tomo Primero de la Historia de la Provincia del Santo Rosario de Filipinas, Japón, y China, de la sagrada orden de predicadores (Zaragoza: Por Domingo Gascon, Insançon, Impressor del Santo Hospital Real y General de Nuestra Señora de Gracia, 1693), p. 14; Alcina, La historia de las islas e indios visayas, fol. 150v.
120 Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 305.
121 Delgado, Historia General Sacroprofana, fol. 344v.
122 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4090, exp. 15.
123 AGN, Inquisición, vol. 442, exp. 46.
124 Bertrand, Le Long Remords, pp. 217–305.
125 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 1766, exp. 28.
126 Delor Angeles states erroneously that no witches were ever burned in the Philippines. See Delor Angeles, ‘The Philippine Inquisition’, pp. 269–70. While indigenous subjects had been exempted from inquisitorial jurisdiction since 1571, we can only assume that Lucía's Javanese origins made her an exception to this rule as a migrant from lands beyond Spain's imperial possessions. On the exemption of indigenous subjects from inquisitorial powers, see Klor de Alva, ‘Colonizing souls’, p. 4; Lopes Don, ‘Franciscans, Indian sorcerers, and the Inquisition’, pp. 27–8.
127 AGN, Indiferente Virreinal, caja 4090, exp. 15. AGN, Inquisición, vol. 442, exp. 46.
128 Stephanie Joy Mawson, Incomplete conquests: The limits of Spanish Empire in the seventeenth-century Philippines (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2023), pp. 56–77.
129 ‘Insurrections by Filipinos in the seventeenth century’, B&R, vol. 38, pp. 87–9; Pedro Murillo Velarde, Historia de la Provincia de Philipinas de la compañía de Jesús (Manila: Imprenta de la Compañía de Jesús, por D. Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay, 1749), pp. 17–19; Fray Juan de Medina, Historia de los sucesos de la orden de N. Gran P.S. Agustín de estas Islas Filipinas, desde que se descubrieron y se poblaron por los españoles, con las noticias memorables (Manila: Tipo-Litografía de Chofre y Comp., 1893), pp. 226–8; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 76, núm. 13. ARSI, Phil. 6, fols. 307r–314r: Annua Societatis Iesu Provinciae Philippinarum Insularum, Anni 1621.
130 ‘Insurrections by Filipinos in the seventeenth century’, B&R, vol. 38, pp. 215–23.
131 AHN, CDI, leg. 25, núm. 62. BNE, mss. 3828: Informaciones acerca de la vida del venerable fray Alonso Orozco, fols. 213r–216v. AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 1, núm. 16.
132 Aduarte, Tomo Primero de la Historia de la Provincia del Santo Rosario, pp. 413–8.
133 Archivo de la Provincia del Santísimo Rosario, 58, Sección Cagayan, tomo 13, doc. 3: Alzamiento en Cagayan en 1660. RAH, 9/2668, núm. 42: Annua de las Islas Philipinas: Del Estado de las islas desde el año 658 hasta el de 661; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 9, ramo 2, núm. 34.
134 AGI, Filipinas, leg. 86, núm. 48.
135 ARSI, Phil. 12, fols. 1r–12r: Letter from Ignacio Alcina, 24 June 1660.
136 The account is undated but was likely written in the 1670s. AGI, Filipinas, leg. 28, núm. 131, fols. 1015r–1018v: Copia de un capítulo en que se noticia de la nación China, que llaman sangleyes, que residen en el parían de la Ciudad de Manila, y demás Islas Filipinas, su natural, y daños que ocasionan en vivir en los pueblos y ciudades de aquellas provincias, y a su continuación esta la respuesta, hacienda juicio de esta representación.
137 These historians tend to view the process of evangelisation as ‘expansive, prolific, glorious’, directed by a peaceful army of missionaries and largely completed, ‘in record time’, by the end of the 17th century. John Schumacher argues that Filipinos were the most thoroughly evangelised people anywhere in the world prior to the 19th century. Phelan, John Leddy, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish aims and Filipino responses, 1565–1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967)Google Scholar; Campos, Francisco Javier y de Sevilla, Fernández, ‘Las órdenes mendicantes en Filipinas: agustinos, franciscanos, dominicos y recoletos’, in España y el Pacífico: Legazpi, Tomo II, ed. Cabrero, Leoncio (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, 2004), pp. 251–80Google Scholar; Sánchez Fuertes, ‘La Iglesia y sus relaciones con los filipinos’; Neira, Eladio, Conversion methodology in the Philippines (1565–1665) (Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1966)Google Scholar; Schumacher, ‘Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism’, pp. 251–72; Schumacher, John N., Growth and decline: Essays on Philippine church history (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Reyes, Ramon C., ‘Religious experiences in the Philippines: From mythos to logos to kairos’, Philippine Studies 33, 2 (1985): 203–21Google Scholar; Morán, Pedro Borges, ‘Aspectos Característicos de La Evangelización de Filipinas’, in España Y El Pacífico: Legazpi, Tomo II, Leoncio Cabrero (Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, 2004), pp. 285–318Google Scholar; Fernandez, Pablo, O.P., , History of the Church in the Philippines (1521–1898) (Manila: National Book Store Publishers, 1979)Google Scholar.
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139 Cannell, Power and intimacy, pp. 118–28.