Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website: https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 January 2009
The early ʽAlawī state has repeatedly been described as heavy and efficient military government. In practice it functioned as a relatively loosely-knit tribute state. The achievement of its notable and long-lived second sultan Ismāʽil (1672–1727) was to shed the aegis of Fez, his economic metropolis, and set up an increasingly gigantic palace, beside a market town, as an independent political base. His central government there was characterized by minimal use of coin and minuscule central bureaucracy. For military support the sultan at first relied chiefly upon free troops, associated by fictional kinship with his most notable wife: later he relied increasingly upon black slave guards. But the motors of government at large were not imperial troops, whose functions were essentially deterrence and the hallmarking of government activity; they were provincial governors, bound to the sultan by ties of individual loyalty. These governors were responsible for the extraction of tribute destined for the palace.
Religion gave increased coherence to this state. This was not so much because of its association with literacy, as because it enabled the sultan, who needed religious prestige, to enhance his unremarkable claim to descent from the Prophet, by taking up the Islamic mantle of ‘Commander of the Faithful’. This was a forceful image for propaganda that could counter the close association between the palace and Moroccan Jewry. It could also validate demands for loyalty throughout the empire. A hard Islamic line was expressed in jihād, or holy warfare, against Christendom. The sultan's limited resources and his other military commitments prevented him from conducting active jihād much above the level of token confrontation. But there was also a moral jihād, waged, in so far as this was possible, by rejection of cultural and economic ties with Europe.
1 de Castries, H. et al. , Let Sources Iréditet de I'Histoire du Maroc (Paris, from 1905 and in progress), Deuxième Série: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, Oct. 1698), 687.Google Scholar
2 Cf., for example, Julien, Ch.-A., History of North Africa from the Arab conquest to 1830, (London, 1970), 242–62Google Scholar; Terrasse, H., Histoire du Maroc, ii (Casablanca, 1950), 244–78Google Scholar; Brignon, J. et al. , Histoire du Maroc, (Casablanca, 1967), 238–55Google Scholar; Laroui, A., L'Histoire du Maghreb: un essai de synthèse (Paris, 1970), 252–6Google Scholar; Abun-Nasr, J.-M., A History of the Maghrib (London, 1971), 224–31.Google Scholar
3 al-Zayyānī, , ‘Al-bustān al-z¸arīf fī dawlat awlād mawlay ‘alī al-sharīf’ (MS. D 1577, Bibliothèque Générale, Rabat)Google Scholar, is the more important of the two relevant chronicles. See 1–46 for the introductory section. Much of this chronicle has been reproduced, with modifications, within a well-known indigenous history: al-Nāşirī, , Kitāb al-istiqşā liakhbār duwal al-maghrib al-aqşā (Cairo, 1894), ivGoogle Scholar, tr. Fumey, E. as ‘Chronique de la dynastie alaouie du Maroc’, Archives Marocaines, ix and x (1906–1907)Google Scholar; see ix, 1–138, for the introductory section. For the relevant material in al-Zayyānī's alternative chronicle, ‘Al-turjumān al-mu 'rib ‘an duwal al-mashriq wa'l-maghrib’, see Houdas, O., Le Maroc de 1631 à 1812 (Paris, 1886)Google Scholar, for an edition and translation of its thirteenth and final chapter: introductory section, text 1–33, translation 1–55.
4 al-Zayyānī, , ‘Al-bustān al-z¸arīf’, 44.Google Scholar
5 Cf., for example, Terrasse, , Histoire, 263–4Google Scholar; Abun-Nasr, , History, 228.Google Scholar
6 Gray, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa, iv (London, 1975), 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7 See Wallace-Hadrill, J. M., The Barbarian West (London, 1952), 79–82Google Scholar, and the same author's The Long-Haired Kings (London, 1962), 206–31.Google Scholar
8 For recent accounts of these empires see Inalcik, H., ‘The State’, in The Ottoman Empire (London, 1973), 55–118Google Scholar, and Lambton, A. K. S., ‘Persia: the breakdown of society’, in Holt, P. M., Lambton, A. K. S. and Lewis, B. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Islam, i (London, 1970), 434–8.Google Scholar
9 For accounts of al-Rashīd's early adventures, see Mouëtte, G., Histoire des Conquestes de Mouley Archy …. (Paris, 1693)Google Scholar, ed. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, ii, 1–201 (hereafter: Mouëtte, Histoire), 15–19Google Scholar; al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī li-ahl al-qarn al-hādī ‘ashr wa'l thānī: mid-eighteenth century manuscript, lithographed (Fez, 1892–1893), vol. i (part 2), ed./tr. E. Michaux-Bellaire, Archives Marocaines, xxiv (1917), 97–101Google Scholar; al-Ifrānī, , ‘Nuzhat al-hādī bi-akhbār mulūk al-qarn al-hādī’, early eighteenth-century work, ed./tr. Houdas, O. as Nozhet el-hadi: histoire de la dynastie saadienne au Maroc (1511–1670) (Paris, edition 1888, translation 1889), text 301–2, translation 499.Google Scholar
10 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 183–8Google Scholar; cf. Olon, F. Pidou de St., L'estat present de I'empire de Maroc (Paris, 1694)Google Scholar, tr. Motteux, P. as The Present State of the Empire of Morocco (London, 1695), 140Google Scholar. For copious earlier notes upon the society and economy of Fez and its orbit of supply and trade, see Africanus, Leo (Ḥasan ibn Muḥammad al-Wazz¯anī al-Fāsī) (ed. Ramusio, G. B.), Delia descrittione dell' Africa et delle cose notabili che quivi sono per Giovan Lioni Africano in Delle navigations et viaggi (3rd ed., Venice, 1563), 1–95passimGoogle Scholar. For an accessible modern French version, see Épaulard, A. et al. , Description de I'Afrique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1956).Google Scholar
11 For examples of al-Rashīd's activities in this role, see al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 201Google Scholar; al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas, ), Le Maroc, text ii, translation 22–3Google Scholar; Mouëtte, , Histoire, 185 and 186–7Google Scholar; State Papers, Public Record Office, London (hereafter S.P.), 71 (13), fo. 196, memo, of Robert ffarindaill (Tetuan, 19 Aug. 1669); Lakhdar, M., La vie littéraire au Maroc sous la dynastie ‘Alawide (1075–1311 = 1664–1894) (Rabat, 1971), 48.Google Scholar
12 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 74.Google Scholar
13 Mouëtte, , Histoire, iii.Google Scholar
14 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 28Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, D., Histoire du régne de Moulay Ismal (Rouen, 1714), 36.Google Scholar
15 Olon, Pidou de St. (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 140.Google Scholar
16 Africanus, Leo (ed. Ramusio), Descrittione, 31Google Scholar; cf., for comparison, Épaulard edn., 175–7.
17 For discussion of the major tussles between 1697 and 1720, see Mercer, P. A., ‘Political and Military Developments within Morocco during the early 'Alawī period (1659–1727)’ (Ph.D. thesis, London, 1974), ch. 4, 211–13, and ch. 5, passim.Google Scholar
18 de Léon, J., Diálogo (Spanish manuscript of 1743), ed., with paraphrase, Ch. de la Véronne as Vie de Moulay Isma'il, roi de Fès et de Maroc (Paris, 1974), 14 (fo. 225)Google Scholar. This and other references to this work henceforward are to the Spanish text. Cf. Windus, J., A Journey to Mequinez (London, 1721), 207–8Google Scholar; Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, VI, no. z, Périllié to Boyer (Sale, 21 Dec. 1705), 329–30.Google Scholar
19 al-Zarhūnī, , ‘Rihalt al-wāfid fī akhbār hijrat al-wālid’, eighteenth century manuscript ed./tr. Justinard, F. as La Rihia du Marabout de Tasaft, (Paris, 1940), 167–8.Google Scholar
20 Braithwaite, J., The History of the Revolutions in the Empire of Morocco (London, 1729), 335.Google Scholar
21 Anon., ‘Tadhkirat al-nisyān fī akhbār mulāk al-sādān’, ed./tr. Houdas, O. and Benoist, E. as Tedrkiret en-Nisiān (Paris, edition 1899, translation 1901), text 74, translation 119Google Scholar; cf. (for the acknowledgement of al-Rashīd in Timbuktu), text 158, translation 257–8.
22 For the entertainment of ‘Moroccan’ ambassadors by Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France, see, for the former, Routh, E. M. G., Tangier: England's Lost Atlantic Outpost, 1661–1684 (London, 1912), 223–8Google Scholar; cf. Holt, P. M., ‘An Oxford Arabist: Edward Pococke, 1604–91’, Studies in the History of the Near East (London, 1973), 16Google Scholar; and, for the latter, Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, v, passim.Google Scholar
23 al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 338Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 190Google Scholar; Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne, ), 98 (fos. 54–5).Google Scholar
24 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 164.Google Scholar
25 Mouëtte, , Histire, 59.Google Scholar
26 Busnot, , Histoire du régne, 36.Google Scholar
27 al-Qādirī, Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellair), 349.Google Scholar
28 Mouëtte, , Hostoire, 164.Google Scholar
29 ‘… the Jews, particularly Memaran their Govemour, … supplyed him with Money to carry on the War against his Opposers’. Windus, , Journey, 117.Google Scholar
30 Chronicle of Sa'dya ibn Danān, text no. 21 (part 2); Vajda, G., ‘Un recueil de textes historiques judéo-marocaines’, Hespéris, xxxvi (1949), 141.Google Scholar
31 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 176–7Google Scholar; cf. de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 80–1Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 63–4, 250, 190 and 348Google Scholar; Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Veronne), 156–7 (fos. 249–52).Google Scholar
32 Mouëtte, G., Relation de la captivité du Sieur Mouëtte dans les Royaumes de Fez et de Maroc (Paris, 1683), 31Google Scholar; cf. Ockley, S., An Account of South-West Barbary (London, 1713), Preface, xiii-xivGoogle Scholar. See also Bloom, H. I., The Economic Activities of the Jews of Amsterdam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Williamsport, Pa., 1937), 75–82 and 209.Google Scholar
33 Anon, (initialled S. L.), A letter from a gentleman of the Lord Ambassador Howard's Retinue, (London, 1670), 3Google Scholar; cf. Mouëtte, , Histoire, 177Google Scholar: Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, HI, no. 23, Naval instructions to galley admiral the Due de Mortemart (Versailles, 9 May 1687), 55Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 106 and 168–9.Google Scholar
34 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 177Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 184–5.Google Scholar
35 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 373.Google Scholar
36 For notes upon European and Mediterranean currencies during this period, see Braudel, F., The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London, 1972), 1, 537–42Google Scholar; cf. Braudel, F. P. and Spooner, F., ‘Prices in Europe from 1450 to 1750’, in Rich, E. E. and Wilson, C. H. (ed.), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, iv (London, 1967), 386.Google Scholar
37 Windus, , Journey, 65Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 373Google Scholar. For an analysis of the mechanism of the ‘money of account’ see Braudel, and Spooner, , ‘Prices in Europe …’, 378–86.Google Scholar
38 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 372–3.Google Scholar
39 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 197Google Scholar; cf. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 101, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 29 July 1697), 529Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 84Google Scholar; de Léen, , Diálogo (ed. de la Véionne, ), 152 (fos. 234–5).Google Scholar
40 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 93, memo, of Périllié on Moroccan trade (Sale, Jan. 1689), 234Google Scholar; cf. Africanus, Leo (ed. Ramusio), Descrittione, 13 and 16Google Scholar (compare Épaulard edn. I, 84–5 and 94–5); Grey-Jackson, J., An account of the Empire of Morocco, (London, 1809), 126–7.Google Scholar
41 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 196–8Google Scholar; cf. Lemprière, W., A Tour from Gibraltar (London, 1791), 123–4Google Scholar, footnote reproducing an anonymous manuscript of 1737.
42 ‘Ils y ont chacun deux ou trois armes … en quoy ils fondent leurs richesses. Les Susis sont plus adroits aux armes et plus guerriers que tous les autres Barbares’, Mouëtte, , Histoire, 198.Google Scholar
43 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 373–4.Google Scholar
44 Windus, , Journey, 65Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 372–3.Google Scholar
45 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 156 (fo. 247).Google Scholar
46 al-Qādirā, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 201Google Scholar; cf. al-Zayyānl¯, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text ii, translation 21.Google Scholar
47 Windus, , Journey, 65.Google Scholar
48 al-Zarhānī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 168.Google Scholar
49 For a quaint and detailed contemporary account of the palace, see Windus, , Journey, 112–15Google Scholar; for comparison, the stylized indigenous appreciation in al-Nāşirī, , Kitāb al-istiqşā, IV (tr. Fumey), Archives Marocaines, ix, 71–4.Google Scholar
50 For notes on this earlier palace, demolished by Ismā'īl's order in 1695, see al-Ifrānī, (ed./tr. Houdas), Nuzhat al-hādī, text 102–4, translation 179–95Google Scholar; cf Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 67, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 29 Sept. 1695), 385Google Scholar. For a modern architectural analysis, see Terrasse, , Histoire, 11, 195–6.Google Scholar
51 al-Ifrānī, (ed./tr. Houdas), Nuzhat al-hādi, text 102, translation 180.Google Scholar
52 Terrasse, , Histoire, 11, 266–9.Google Scholar
53 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present state, 72–3Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du régne, 162–3.Google Scholar
54 Busnot, , Histoire du rè;gne, 155–6Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 112–13.Google Scholar
55 Windus, , Journey, 115.Google Scholar
56 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 116–17Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 115 and 123.Google Scholar
57 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 13, 16.Google Scholar
58 al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 13, translation 25Google Scholar; cf. de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 73Google Scholar; de Léon, , Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne, ), 144 (fos. 207–9).Google Scholar
59 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 17–20Google Scholar; cf. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, IV, no. 13, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 11 Aug. 1693), iiiGoogle Scholar; cf. Anon., Relation … de la Mercy (Paris, 1724)Google Scholar (ed. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e série, France, vi, 613–812), 749.Google Scholar
60 Relation de la Mercy, 749.Google Scholar
61 Africanus, Leo (ed. Ramusio), Descrittione, 31Google Scholar (cf. Épaulard edn., I, 176).
62 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 135–6 (fo. 180).Google Scholar
63 ibid. 136 (fo. 181).
64 Anon, (pseud. ‘A.-M. de Mairault’), Relation de ce qui s'est passé dans le royaume de Maroc depuis I'année 1727 jusqu'en 1737, (Paris, 1742), 53–5Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 105Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 254, 264.Google Scholar
65 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 186, 196.Google Scholar
66 ibid. 351.
67 Africanus, Leo (ed. Ramusio), Descrittione, 43–4Google Scholar (cf. Épaulard edn., I, 235–41).
68 For two closely parallel accounts of the army of al-Manşūr al-Sa'dī, see al-Ifrānī, (ed./tr. Houdas), Nuzhat al-hādī, text 115–18, translation 195–201Google Scholar; Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, ie Série: Angleterre, ii, no. 83, H. Roberts to James I (Marrakesh, n.d.), 224–5Google Scholar. For renegades in the service of the later Sa'dī, see Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, ie Série: Angleterre, iii, no. 93 (Leconfield MS. no. 73), 467Google Scholar. For a modern discussion of Sa'dī forces, see Dziubinski, A., ‘L'armée et la flotte de guerre marocaines à l'époque des sultans de la dynastie saadienne’, Hespéris Tamuda, xiii (1972), 61–93.Google Scholar
69 ‘… pas moins esclaves qu'ils estoient auparavant … le Roy en fait ses gardes des portes de son palais’, Mouëtte, , Histoire, 175.Google Scholar
70 ‘… sad, drunken, profligate Fellows, half-naked and half-starved’, Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 349–50.Google Scholar
71 Cf., for example, notes on the use of renegades in Mouëtte, , Histoire, 125Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the. Revolutions, 156.Google Scholar
72 For the stylized indigenous account of Udāya origins, see al-Zayyānl¯, , ‘Al-bustān al-farif’, 41Google Scholar; cf. version in al-Nāşirī, , Kitāb al-istiqşa, ivGoogle Scholar (tr. Fumey), Archives Marocaines, ix, 66–9.Google Scholar
73 ‘… todos Mulatos obscuros de un linage, quellaman ludeas que son Cavalleros de el Rey, y oy los mas estimados, porque son parientes de la Reyna Negra’. de San Juan Del Puerto, F.-J.-M., Mission Historial de Marruecos (Seville, 1708), 616.Google Scholar
74 Puerto, Del, Mission Historial, 616Google Scholar; cf. de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), 25Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 157.Google Scholar
75 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 157–8.Google Scholar
76 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 176Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 140 (fo. 195)Google Scholar. For a modern discussion of Ismā‘il’s deployment of his army, enthusiastic as to its efficiency, see Morsy, M., ‘Moulay Isma'il et l'armée de métier’ in Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xiv (05–06 1967), 97–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77 Mouëtte, , Histoire 68.Google Scholar
78 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 176.Google Scholar
79 Castries, de, Let Sources Inédites, 2e Seie: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, Oct. 1698), 692.Google Scholar
80 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne, ), 140 (fo. 195)Google Scholar; cf. the grosser estimate of ‘sixty thousand, half horse’, S.P. (71) fo. 162, Butler, to Russell, (Tetuan, 29 July 1728).Google Scholar
81 For twentieth-century analyses of jaysh groupings and their pattern of land tenure, see Mauduit, R., ‘Le makhzen marocain’, in Bulletin du Comité de I'Afrique Française: (Renseignements Coloniaux) (1903), 300–2Google Scholar; cf. le Coz, J., ‘Les tribus guichs au Maroc: essai de géographie agraire’, Revue de Géographic du Maroc, vii (1965), 3–52.Google Scholar
82 al-Zayyānī, , ‘Al-bustān al-z¸arif, 32; cf. al-Zayyānī (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 16, translation 30; de Léon, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 140–1, 142–3 (fos. 196–7 and 201–5).Google Scholar
83 Windus, , Journey, 84.Google Scholar
84 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 286.Google Scholar
85 Busnot, , Histoire du règnee, 46 and 57Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 203.Google Scholar
86 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State. 65Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 100.Google Scholar
87 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 163Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règnee, 167–8.Google Scholar
88 Windus, , Journey, 100Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 175–6.Google Scholar
89 Castries, de, Les Sources Ineédites, 2e Série: France, III, no. 112, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Marseille, 6 July 1690), 300Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 76 and 95.Google Scholar
90 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 163Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 95, 124–5.Google Scholar
91 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 112, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Marseille, 6 July 1690), 300.Google Scholar
92 Windus, , Journey. 147.Google Scholar
93 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 176Google Scholar; cf. Castries, de, Les Sources lnédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 112 (Marseille, 6 July 1690), 300Google Scholar; de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 13, 50Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 139–43.Google Scholar
94 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 141 (fo. 198).Google Scholar
95 Windus, , Journey, 140–1Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 141 (fo. 198)Google Scholar. For the stylized indigenous account of this mason-work as ‘training’, see al-Zayyānī, , ‘Al-bustān al-z¸arif’, 37Google Scholar; cf. version in al-Nāşirī, , Kitäb al-istiqşā, iv (tr. Fumey), Archives Marocaines, ix, 94–5.Google Scholar
96 ‘Son Conseil est tout entier dans sa tête’, Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 45.Google Scholar
97 ‘… if he remains by him [the sultan] without any Employment … he is called Alcayde of his Head, which is a sort of an Alcayde titular or Reforme …’, Windus, , Journey, 144.Google Scholar
98 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, passim.Google Scholar
99 The Maghrib al-Aqşā had no ‘grand mouphity’ as such (de Castries, Les Sources lnédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of Estelle, J.-B. (Sale, Oct. 1698), 697Google Scholar. In Fez it was customary for the function of mufti (legaladviser in chief) to be subsumed within that of qād¸ī (chief judge): al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire, ), 261.Google Scholar
100 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 114–16Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 122, 155.Google Scholar
101 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 133 (fo. 171).Google Scholar
102 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 133 (fo. 171)Google Scholar; cf. the ‘great fat Mulatto Court-Lady … a sort of Gentlewoman-Usher’, noted at the court of Isma ‘il’s son by Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 171.Google Scholar
103 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 48.Google Scholar
104 Three texts carrying al-Yahmadī's name, as recipient of the first and author of the second and third, are included in El-Fasi, M. (ed.), ‘Lettres Inedites de Moulay Ismaël’, HespéWis Tamuda (special edn. 1962), as nos. 20, 23 and 24 (67 and 69–70).Google Scholar
105 Lakhdar, , La vie Littéraire, 172–3Google Scholar; cf. Akansūs, Muhammad, quoted al-Nāsirī, Kitāb al-istiqşā, iv (tr. Fumey), Archives Marocaines, ix, 86–7.Google Scholar
106 Windus, , Journey, 122Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 88 (fo. 21) and 133 (fos. 170–1)Google Scholar; al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 154Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, passim.Google Scholar
107 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 115.Google Scholar
108 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 97Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 55–6.Google Scholar
109 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 98 (fo. 55)Google Scholar; cf. de la Faye, J., Relation en forme de journal de voiage pour la rédemption des captifs aux roiaumes de Maroc et d'Alger … pendant les anniées 1723, 1724 et 1725 (Paris, 1726), 160.Google Scholar
110 Windus, , Journey, 190Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 98 (fos. 54–5).Google Scholar
111 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, IV, no. 144, memo, of J.-B. Estelle Sale, Oct. 1698), 694Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne). 98 (fo. 55).Google Scholar
112 For notes on payments in silver to Ismā‘il’s sons Zaydān and Muhammad al-'Alīm, see Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 66, 81 and 110.Google Scholar
113 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 158–9.Google Scholar
114 al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 112.Google Scholar
115 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 142 and 143 (fos. 202 and 204)Google Scholar. The sum was worth approximately £12,000 in English money of the period. For the value of the Maghribi silver quintal as 120 lbs Troy weight, see Hinz, W., Jslamische Masse und Gewichte umgerechnet ins metrische System (Leiden/Cologne, 1970)Google Scholar; for comparison, showing the stability of sterling coinage throughout the period, see Braudel, and Spooner, , ‘Prices in Europe’, Appendix, Fig. 4, 458.Google Scholar
116 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of J. B. Estelle (Sale, Oct. 1698), 695–6.Google Scholar
117 For examples of such commentary, see Busnot, , Histoire du règnee, 40Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 123.Google Scholar
118 ‘de Mairault’, Relation, 54.Google Scholar
119 Cf., for example, Terrasse, , Histoire, 11, 262Google Scholar; Laroui, , L'Histoire du maghreb, 254–5.Google Scholar
120 For reliable references to ad hoc and occasional makhzan fort-building of the period, see, for example, Mouëtte, , Histoire, 125, 126Google Scholar; al–Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 168Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 20, 335, 350Google Scholar. The comparatively well-known chronicle data giving details of planned and comprehensive building of garrison forts under Ismā‘il’s personal direction seem to be based upon confused and unreliable source material. For a critique, see Mercer, P. A., ‘Political and Military Developments’, 283–6, 294–309.Google Scholar
121 al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), he Maroc, text 18, translation, 35.Google Scholar
122 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 350.Google Scholar
123 Windus, , Journey, 121.Google Scholar
124 Windus, , Journey, 143.Google Scholar
125 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 113, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Marseille, 19 July 1690), 314Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 202.Google Scholar
126 A lone exception to this generalization is provided by the glimpse of tension between Marrakesh and the Tinmal region of the High Atlas, in the second decade of the eighteenth century, delineated in the narrative of the rural cleric al-Zarhūnī of Tasaft, the Riḥla (tr. Justinard), passim.
127 A concept put forward by Braudel, in The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World, I, 38–41Google Scholar, less clinical in its positive and negative dichotomy than the alternates of makhzan and sība. The noun siba seems to have been quite unknown in the early 'Alawl period.
128 Morsy, M., Les Ahanşāla: examen du rdle historique d'une famille maraboutique de l'Atlas marocain au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1970), 9–11Google Scholar. The twentieth-century Ahanşālī have been brought into singular focus in an anthropological study: Gellner, E., Saints of the Atlas (London, 1969).Google Scholar
129 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 183 and 185.Google Scholar
130 Wazzan in the 1720s was ‘the seat of a living Saint’, the people of whose region were ‘all his Vassals, and the Produce of the Country all round the Town, at his Disposal, the People paying no other taxes but to him’. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 129 and 131Google Scholar. For the tarjama or hagiographical biography of Mawlāy ‘Abd Allāh, sharif of Wazzan, see al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire, ), 262–6Google Scholar. For later studies of the Wazzan immunity, see Aubin, E., Le Maroc d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1904), 453–92Google Scholar; cf. ‘Ouezzan, ’, Mission Scientifique du Maroc, Villes et tribus du Maroc, iii (Paris, 1920), 221–54.Google Scholar
131 Windus, , Journey, 76.Google Scholar
132 For an analysis of this ‘open’ pattern in regal government, to which the key lies in royal appointment, see Lloyd, P. C., ‘The political structure of African kingdoms’, Political Systems and the Distribution of Power, A.S.A. monographs 2 (London, 1965), 102–4.Google Scholar
133 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 61, J.-B. Estelle to Pontchartrain (Sale, Journal for Aug. 1695), 355Google Scholar; cf. al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 24–5 and 30, translation 45 and 56.Google Scholar
134 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 116 and 121Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 202Google Scholar; al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 34.Google Scholar
135 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 176Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 203Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 144Google Scholar; al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 153.Google Scholar
136 Windus, , Journey, 146.Google Scholar
137 Castries, de, Let Sources Inédites, 2e SeVie: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, Oct. 1698), 694–5Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journal, passim.Google Scholar
138 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Vironne), 149 (fos. 223–4).Google Scholar
139 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 98, 99, 111Google Scholar; cf. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 25, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 12 Sept. 1693), 221Google Scholar; cf. Puerto, Del, Mission Historial, 59Google Scholar; al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 116.Google Scholar
140 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 99Google Scholar; cf. al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 48Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 216.Google Scholar
141 al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 34–156Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 77–8.Google Scholar
142 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 149 (fo. 224).Google Scholar
143 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iv, no. 144, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, Oct. 1698), 695.Google Scholar
144 Ibid. 709.
145 Translations of open imperial letters to the inhabitants of the Tuat oasean complex with Hegiran dates corresponding to July 1685, and 7 Aug. 1699, in Martin, A.-G.-P., Quatre siècles d'histoire marocaine (1504–1912) (Paris, 1924), 65, 74.Google Scholar
146 Translations of manuscripts from Timmi and Aoulef, itemizing their contributions to Tuat taxation; Timmi material with Hegiran dates corresponding to 1687–8 and Feb. 1698; Aoulef material, from Oct. 1696, in Martin, , Quatre siècles, 65–7, 72.Google Scholar
147 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 152 (fo. 236).Google Scholar
148 Windus, , Journey, 200Google Scholar; cf. al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard), Riḥla, 112–14.Google Scholar
149 la Faye, de, Relation, 240.Google Scholar
150 Windus, , Journey, 81.Google Scholar
151 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, vi, no. 68, Busnot to Pontchartrain (Cadiz, 15 Apr. 1708), 403Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 200–2.Google Scholar
152 al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 26, translation 48–9Google Scholar; cf. al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (Fez lithograph, II, first notation 170).Google Scholar
153 S.p. 71 (16) fo. 563, memo, of Hatfield (Tetuan, , 11 Aug. 1718)Google Scholar; cf. al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard) Riḥla, 153Google Scholar. The chronology of the former is to be preferred to that of the latter, who gives a seasonally equivalent Hegiran date for the previous year.
154 al-Zarhūnī, (tr. Justinard) Jihla, 154.Google Scholar
155 For examples of Ismā‘il’s use of the title amīr al-mu'minīn, see Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, VI, no. 57, Ismā'il to the English dīwān (Parliament) and Admiralty (n.d., tr. 13 June 1707), 350Google Scholar; ibid., no. 80, Ismā'il, to Louis, XIV, (Hegiran dating corresponding to 15 July 1711), 464.Google Scholar
156 For discussion of this potentially dislocatory problem within Islamic states, see Brett, M., ‘Problems in the interpretation of the history of the Maghrib in the light of some recent publications’, J. Afr. Hist., xiii (1972), 498–9.Google Scholar
157 Mauduit, , ‘Lemakhzenmarocain’, 293–304Google Scholar; cf. Aubin, , Le Maroc d'aujourd'hui, 133–7.Google Scholar
158 ‘… and that he might oblige the People to a greater obedience he hath given out that he is of the Race of their Prophet Mahomet, and that according to that Law none ought to command in Chief, but one lineally descended from Mahomet’, ‘S.L.’, Letter from a gentleman, 28.Google Scholar
159 Salmon, G., ‘Les Chorfa Idrisides de Fès’, Archives Marocaines, i (1904), 425–53Google Scholar; cf. Salmon, G., ‘Les Chorfa Filala et Djilala de Fès’, Archives Marocaines, iii (1905), 97–118.Google Scholar
160 For the discreet and posthumous erasure of Ghaylān's family from the register of shurafā', in May of 1699 (Dhū, ‘1-Qa'da 1110 A.H.), see A Péretié, ‘Le Raīs El-Khadir Ghaīlan’, Archives Marocaines, xviii (1912), 12.Google Scholar
161 Thus, of ‘Tafilet’ … ‘Les peuples de cet État sont de trois sortes, et sont composez de chérifs, d'Arabes et de Barbares. Les premiers sont descendus de l'imposteur Mahomet…’, Mouëtte, , Histoire, 195.Google Scholar
162 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 25Google Scholar; cf. Sa'dya ibn Danān (tr. Vajda), text no. 21 (part 2), in ‘Un recueil de textes’, 139Google Scholar; al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 177.Google Scholar
163 Sa'dya ibn Danān (tr. Vajda), text no. 21 (part 2), in ‘Un recueil de textes’, 139.Google Scholar
164 ‘Il fait toujours porter devant lui l'Archoran par son Talbe, comme la règie de ses Conseils, et le niveau de sa Conduite’, Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 48.Google Scholar
165 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 117–18 (fo. 115).Google Scholar
166 ibid. 118 (fos. 118–19).
167 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 48.Google Scholar
168 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 87 (fo. 17).Google Scholar
169 Castries, de, Let Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France III, no. 113, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Marseille, 19 July 1690), 316Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 151Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 60–1.Google Scholar
170 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 124Google Scholar; al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas) Le Maroc, text 19, translation 34Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 156–7.Google Scholar
171 Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 116 (fo. iii).Google Scholar
172 Windus, , Journey, 216.Google Scholar
173 Windus, , Journey, 215Google Scholar; cf. the standard, anodyne and erroneously dated indigenous version of this impressment: al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 15–16, translation 29–31Google Scholar; and the same author's ‘Al-bustān al-ẓrif’, 31–2 and 37 (cf. version in al-Nāsirī, , Kitab al-istiqsā, iv (tr. Furney) Archives Marocaines, ix, 74–7 and 94–6).Google Scholar
174 al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas) Le Maroc, text 25, translation 47Google Scholar; cf. El-Fasi, M., ‘Lettres Inédites’, no. 13, Ismā'il to Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Fāsī (date imperfect), 55–7.Google Scholar
175 El-Fasi, M., ‘Biographie de Moulay Ismael’, Hespéris Tamuda (special edn., 1962), 19–20Google Scholar; cf. Arabic version, Appendix, 29. For the Islamic legal ruling, see Brunschvig, R., '‘Abd’, in The Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd edn.), I (Leiden/London, 1960), 26.Google Scholar
176 Relation de la Mercy, 715Google Scholar; cf. al-Zayyānī, , ‘Al-bustān al-ẓarīf’, 43.Google Scholar
177 Akansūs, Muhammad, quoted al-Nīşiri, Kitāb al-istiqsā, IV (tr. Fumey), Archives Marocaines, ix, 121.Google Scholar
178 El-Fasi, M., ‘Lettres Inédites’, no. 10Google Scholar, Ismā'il, to Muhammad, ibn ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Fāsī (Hegiran dating corresponding to 15 July 1697), 48.Google Scholar
179 El-Fasi, M., ‘Lettres Inédites’, no. 13Google Scholar, Ismā'il, to Muhammad, ibn ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Fāsī (date imperfect), 57.Google Scholar
180 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 119.Google Scholar
181 al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-maathānī (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 357.Google Scholar
182 ‘… the gravest People will be passing thro’ the Streets with wooden Horses, Swords, Launces and Drums, with which they equip the Children that can scarce go, and meet in Troops in the Street and engaging, say Thus we destroy the Christians', Windus, , Journey, 46.Google Scholar
183 Fréjus, R., Relation d'un voyage fait dans la Mauritanie, (Paris, 1670)Google Scholar, ed. Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, 1, 129Google Scholar; cf. al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 11–12, translation 23Google Scholar; Luke, J., diary ed. Kaufman, H., Tangier at High Tide: the Journal of John Luke 1670–73, (Paris, 1958), 21Google Scholar (note for 9 Dec. 1670).
184 ‘My Master … has no need of the sea … for less than would suffice for the building and entertaining of one ship, he can maintain a thousand horsemen, that are more worth than a thousand ships’: the mujāhid Ahmad ibn Haddū al-Hammāmī to ‘The captain of Tangier, Kirke the English’, quoted Pepys, S., ‘Miscellanea’, II, 381Google Scholar (Pepys Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge).
185 Ockley, , Account, 10Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 10.Google Scholar
186 Mouëtte, , Histoire, 128Google Scholar; cf. la Faye, de, Relation, 215–16Google Scholar; al-Zayyānī, (ed. Houdas), Le Maroc, text 19, translation 36.Google Scholar
187 Windus, , Journey, 102.Google Scholar
188 al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathānī (Fez lithograph, II, first notation 136).Google Scholar
189 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 136, Letter from an unknown Franciscan to Aḥmad ibn Ḥaddu al-Ḥammaml (Ceuta, 12 Sept. 1691), 397Google Scholar; cf. ibid, no. 151, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 2 March 1692), 454. As a by-product of these negotiations came the Muslim ambassador's own delightful impressions of a visit to Europe: al-Ghassānī, , Riḥlat al-wazīr fi 'ftikāk al-aṣīr, tr. Sauvaire, H., Voyage en Espagne d'un ambassadeur marocain (Paris, 1894).Google Scholar
190 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, iii, no. 151, memo, of J.-B. Estelle (Sale, 2 Mar. 1692), 454.Google Scholar
191 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 220–30.Google Scholar
192 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 10.Google Scholar
193 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 121Google Scholar; cf. Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 217–20Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 67.Google Scholar
194 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, vi, Pillet to Nolasque Néant (Sale, 4 Apr. 1708), 332, note i.Google Scholar
195 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 9.Google Scholar
196 Ockley, , Account, 54–5.Google Scholar
197 Windus, , Journey, 76Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 77, 79.Google Scholar
198 Castries, de, Les Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, vi, no. 68, Busnot to Pontchartrain (Cadiz, 15 Apr. 1708), 403Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 90.Google Scholar
199 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 80.Google Scholar
200 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 351Google Scholar; cf. Ockley, , Account, preface, xix.Google Scholar
201 Busnot, , Histoire du règne, 12.Google Scholar
202 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 49–50Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 214–15.Google Scholar
203 Windus, , Journey, 204–5, 208–9.Google Scholar
204 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 341.Google Scholar
205 Cf. for examples of European obsession with the minutiae of this topic, de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 135–45Google Scholar; Windus, , Journey, 211–12Google Scholar; Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 341.Google Scholar
206 al-Qādirī, , Nashr al-mathdni (tr. Michaux-Bellaire), 358–68Google Scholar; fatqwā (legal opinion) given by the Susi-born but Fez-educated Muḥammad ibn Sulaymān (obit. 1094 A.H. = 1682–3), in dispute with an Egyptian savant.
207 For this and other notes on the Moroccan collapse before the European economy, see Ayache, G., ‘Aspects de la Crise Financière au Maroc après l'expédition espagnole de 1860’, Revue Historigue, ccxx (1958), 271–310.Google Scholar
208 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 143Google Scholar; cf. Léon, de, Diálogo (ed. de la Véronne), 146 (fo. 247).Google Scholar
209 Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 342.Google Scholar
210 Windus, , Journey, 206Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 341.Google Scholar
211 de St. Olon, Pidou (tr. Motteux), The Present State, 21, 76Google Scholar; cf. Windus, , Journey, 207Google Scholar; ‘de Mairault’, Relation, 100.Google Scholar
212 Windus, , Journey, 229–51.Google Scholar
213 Windus, , Journey, 175–9Google Scholar; cf. Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 215.Google Scholar
214 For this, the most conservative estimate of the numbers of horses that could be maintained in the palace of Meknes, see Braithwaite, , History of the Revolutions, 202–3.Google Scholar
215 Windus, , Journey, 151–5Google Scholar
216 Magalhaes-Godinho, V., L'Économie de l'Empire Portugais aux XVe et XVIe Siècles, (Paris, 1969), 99–127.Google Scholar
217 ‘Do they think that they can deal with us as with the people of Tunis and Tripoli, or with the garrison of Algiers? Praise be to God that there is nothing of importance to us along the coast’, Castries, de, Let Sources Inédites, 2e Série: France, v, no. 72, Ismā'il to Louis XIV (Meknes, Hegiran dating corresponding to 5 Nov. 1699), 460.Google Scholar
