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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 April 2020
After the Second World War, the International Tracing Service's Child Search Branch (CSB) responded to inquiries for missing children and, until 1950 when funding was stopped, searched for children ‘in the field’. As the Cold War set in, the US military authorities restricted the opportunities for such children, mostly Eastern European, to be removed from their German foster parents and returned to their countries of origin. In the spring of 1948, when tensions between the CSB fieldworkers and the military authorities were at their height, ITS appointed an experienced fieldworker, Charlotte Babinski, to investigate cases of children in German foster homes with a view to streamlining policy regarding child removal. Despite her findings, as monetary and geopolitical pressures increased, the CSB had to accept that many children of Eastern European origin would remain in Germany. Children were thus a battleground in the early Cold War, in which politics triumphed over ethics.
1 Excerpt from Report of Knut Okkenhaug, Leader Group No. III, 15 Nov. 1946: ‘Illustrations of Situations of Non-German Children in German Homes’; 6.1.2/82487741-7742, International Tracing Service Digital Archive, Wiener Library, London (henceforth ITS DAWL). ITS documents are cited by sub-unit (here 6.1.2) and then the unique document ID number.
2 See Brown-Fleming, Suzanne, Nazi Persecution and Postwar Repercussions: The International Tracing Service Archive and Holocaust Research (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016)Google Scholar; Jennifer L. Rodgers, ‘From the “Archive of Horrors” to the “Shop Window of Democracy”: The International Tracing Service, 1942–2013’, PhD Thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 2014; Zimmer, Bernd Joachim, International Tracing Service Arolsen: Von der Vermisstensuche zur Haftbescheinigung. Die Organisationsgeschichte eines ‘ungewollten Kindes’ während der Besatzungszeit (Bad Arolsen: Waldeckischer Geschichtsverein, 2011)Google Scholar; Stone, Dan, ‘The Memory of the Archive: The International Tracing Service and the Construction of the Past as History’, Dapim: Studies on the Holocaust, 31, 2 (2017), 69–88Google Scholar.
3 Bonney, Thérèse, Europe's Children 1939 to 1943 (self-published, 1943)Google Scholar; Brosse, Thérèse, Homeless Children (Paris: UNESCO, 1950)Google Scholar; Macardle, Dorothy, Children of Europe (London: Victor Gollancz, 1949)Google Scholar; Wilson, Francesca M., Aftermath: France, Germany, Austria, Yugoslavia 1945 and 1946 (West Drayton: Penguin Books, 1947)Google Scholar; Cooper, Kanty, The Uprooted: Agony and Triumph among the Debris of War (London: Quartet Books, 1979)Google Scholar; Sosnowski, Kyrił, The Tragedy of Children under Nazi Rule (New York: Howard Fertig, 1963)Google Scholar; Hrabar, Roman, Tokarz, Zofia and Wilczur, Jacek E., The Fate of Polish Children during the Last War (Warsaw: Interpress, 1981)Google Scholar.
4 Zahra, Tara, The Lost Children: Reconstructing Europe's Families after World War II (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fehrenbach, Heide, ‘War Orphans and Postfascist Families: Kinship and Belonging after 1945’, in Biess, Frank and Moeller, Robert G., eds., Histories of the Aftermath: The Legacies of the Second World War in Europe (New York: Berghahn, 2010), 175–95Google Scholar.
5 Cohen, Boaz, ‘The Children's Voice: Postwar Collection of Testimonies from Child Survivors of the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 21, 1 (2007), 73–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cohen, Boaz and Horváth, Rita, ‘Young Witnesses in the DP Camps: Children's Holocaust Testimony in Context’, Journal of Modern Jewish Studies, 11, 1 (2012), 103–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Michlic, Joanna Beata, ‘What Does a Child Remember? Recollections of the War and the Early Postwar Period among Child Survivors from Poland’, in Michlic, ed., Jewish Families in Europe, 1939–Present (Waltham, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 2017), 153–72Google Scholar.
6 For example: Gafny, Emunah Nachmany, Dividing Hearts: The Removal of Jewish Children from Gentile Families in Poland in the Immediate Post-War Years (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009)Google Scholar; Wolf, Diane L., Beyond Anne Frank: Hidden Children and Postwar Families in Holland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marrus, Michael R., ‘The Vatican and the Custody of Jewish Child Survivors after the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 21, 3 (2007), 378–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Doron, Daniella, ‘Lost Children and Lost Childhoods: Memory in Post-Holocaust France’, in Hand, Seán and Katz, Steven T., eds., Post-Holocaust France and the Jews, 1945–1955 (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 85–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kirsh, Mary Fraser, ‘Remembering the ‘Pain of Belonging’: Jewish Children Hidden as Catholics in Second World War France’, in Gigliotti, Simone and Tempian, Monica, eds., The Young Victims of the Nazi Regime: Migration, the Holocaust and Postwar Displacement (London: Bloomsbury, 2016), 257–75Google Scholar.
7 Cohen, Beth B., Child Survivors of the Holocaust: The Youngest Remnant and the American Experience (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2018)Google Scholar; Doron, Daniella, Jewish Youth and Identity in Postwar France: Rebuilding Family and Nation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Ouzan, Françoise S., How Young Holocaust Survivors Rebuilt Their Lives: France, the United States, and Israel (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 On the CSB, see Borggräfe, Henning, Jah, Akim, Ritz, Nina and Jost, Steffen, eds., Rebuilding Lives – Child Survivors and DP Children in the Aftermath of the Holocaust and Forced Labor, Freilegungen: International Tracing Service Yearbook, 6 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2017)Google Scholar; Balint, Ruth, ‘Alexander and Anastayzia: The Separation and Search for Family among Europe's Displaced’, The History of the Family, 22, 4 (2017), 432–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Balint, Ruth, ‘Children Left Behind: Family, Refugees and Immigration in Postwar Europe’, History Workshop Journal, 82, 1 (2016), 151–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stone, Dan, ‘“The Greatest Detective Story in History”: The BBC, the International Tracing Service, and the Memory of Nazi Crimes in Early Postwar Britain’, History & Memory, 29, 2 (2017), 63–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Susanne Urban, ‘Unaccompanied Children and the Allied Child Search: “The right … a child has to his own heritage”’, in Gigliotti and Tempian, eds., The Young Victims of the Nazi Regime, 277–97; Verena Buser, ‘Die “Child Search and Registration Teams” der UNRRA’, Nurinst: Beiträge zur deutschen und jüdischen Geschichte (2016), 75–88; Buser, Verena, ‘“Mass Detective Operation” im befreiten Deutschland: UNRRA und die Suche nach den eingedeutschten Kindern nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg’, Historie: Jahrbuch des Zentrums für historische Forschung Berlin der polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, 8–9 (2015–6), 347–60Google Scholar; Buser, Verena, ‘Displaced Children 1945 and the Child Tracing Division of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration’, The Holocaust in History and Memory, 7 (2014), 107–21Google Scholar.
9 Taylor, Lynne, In the Children's Best Interests: Unaccompanied Children in American-Occupied Germany, 1945–1952 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017), 321CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also 195–6 on legal protection.
10 Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, 161, 173.
11 Cited in Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, 184.
12 Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, 196–7.
13 Unfortunately, I have been unable to find more information about Babinski. The ITS does not hold a personnel file on her, as it does for some of the other child search officers.
14 Gnydiuk, Olga, ‘“The Advantages of Repatriation Do Not Offset the Trauma of a Removal”: IRO Welfare Officers and the Problem of Ukrainian Unaccompanied Children in German Foster Families’, Freilegungen: International Tracing Service Yearbook, 6 (2017), 160–78Google Scholar.
15 Macardle, Children of Europe, 296.
16 The Hollerith punch-card results of the LRP make up the 55,066 digital documents in sub-unit 3.3.1.1 of ITS DAWL. For the history of the LRP, see Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, 222–30.
17 Maurice Thudichum, The International Tracing Service: Brief Review of its History and Activities (Mar. 1951), 15; 6.1.1/82493202, ITS DAWL.
18 Thudichum, The International Tracing Service, 15; 6.1.1/82493202, ITS DAWL.
19 ‘Stolen Children: Interview with Gitta Sereny’, Talk Magazine (Nov. 2009), online at Jewish Virtual Library: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/stolen-children. See also Cornelia Heise's ‘Child Welfare Field Report on Eastern Military District, November 28, 1945 to December 9, 1945’ for a setting out of the dilemmas facing child search workers. 6.1.2/82486985–6989.
20 Eileen Blackey, Child Search Consultant, ‘Minutes of Field Trip to Berlin, 4th and 5th November 1946’; 6.1.2/82487210, ITS DAWL.
21 Eileen Davidson, Deputy-Chief, Child Search Section, Tracing, Child Search Division, Ludwigsburg, ‘Removal from German Families of Allied Children. Reasons Why This is to the Best Interest of the Child’, 21 Jan. 1948; 6.1.2/82486419_1/_2, ITS DAWL. See also Zahra, The Lost Children, 131–2.
22 John Widdicombe, Chief, PCIRO Office in Poland, to Mrs. M. Lane, Chief, Division of Welfare, PCIRO Headquarters, Geneva, 2 Aug.1948; 6.1.2/82486682, ITS DAWL.
23 Stargardt, Nicholas, Witnesses of War: Children's Lives under the Nazis (London: Pimlico, 2006), 376Google Scholar.
24 Letter to Col. S.R. Mickelson, Displaced Persons Division, USFET, 21 May 1946, cited in Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, 174.
25 Eileen Davidson, untitled, handwritten note on child tracing, n.d. (1948); 6.1.2/82487535_1/_2, ITS DAWL.
26 Cornelia D. Heise, ‘Conference at Wiesbaden’, 16 Feb. 1948; 6.1.2/82487951_1/7952_1, ITS DAWL. This meeting examined the cases of fourteen children.
27 W. Hallam Tuck, Executive Secretary, PCIRO, PCIRO Provisional Order No. 75: Unaccompanied Children – Search; Tracing; Care; and Repatriation, Resettlement, or/other Final Establishment; 6.2.1/82486641–42, ITS DAWL. For a detailed examination focusing mainly on the IRO, see Taylor, In the Children's Best Interests, esp. ch. 8.
28 The documents relating to Babinski's investigations are in 6.1.2/82487928–82487991, which, for ease of using the digital archive, can be found in Ordner (folder) 006 of sub-unit 6.1.2; the children's individual case files are at 6.1.2/82487993–82488205, which comprises the whole of Ordner 006a. Details of some of the children's trajectories can be found in the individual case files in sub-unit 6.3.2.1.
29 Heise to Acting Chief, ITS, U.S. Zone Division (Wittamer), 15 Mar. 1948; 6.1.2/82487965_1, ITS DAWL.
30 Thudichum to Military Governments for Land Bavaria, Munich; Gross Hessen, Wiesbaden; Wuertt.-Baden, Stuttgart, Subject: Investigation of German Foster Homes to Determine the Best Interest of United Nations’ Children, 26 Apr. 1948; 6.1.2/82487930_1, ITS DAWL.
31 Thudichum to Military Governments, 26 Apr. 1948; 6.1.2/82487930_1, ITS DAWL.
32 Cornelia D. Heise, Chief, Child Search/Tracing Section, ITS, to Field Representatives, Wiesbaden and Munich, Subject: Outline for Foster Home Investigations, 26 Apr. 1948; 6.1.2/82487931_1/_2, ITS DAWL.
33 Mrs J. M. Small, Chief, Research and Information Dept., International Union for Child Welfare, Geneva, to Heise, 20 Apr. 1948; 6.1.2/82487978_1, ITS DAWL.
34 For example: James H. Campbell, Refugee and Welfare Adviser, Office of Military Government, Land Wuerttemberg-Baden, Stuttgart, to IRO, ITS Headquarters, Esslingen, 14 June 1948; 6.1.2/82487940_1, ITS DAWL.
35 See Heise to A. J. Wittamer, Chief, U.S. Zone Division, ITS, n.d.; 6.1.2/82487948, ITS DAWL. Wittamer's instruction is at 6.1.2/82487957_1, ITS DAWL.
36 Eileen Davidson pp. Heise, memo to Field Representative Munich, 3 June 1948; 6.1.2/82487958_1, ITS DAWL.
37 Heise to Babinski, 16 June 1948; 6.1.2/82487949_1, ITS DAWL.
38 Charlotte Babinski, Notes on the Table accompanying the Summary of the German Foster Home Placements, 2 July 1948; 6.1.2/82487985_1, ITS DAWL.
39 Statement of Stefan Hocheder, 19 Mar. 1947; Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Baranenko (Barawenko), Helene Erna’, 20 May 1948, 3; 6.1.2/82487997_1, ITS DAWL.
40 Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Baranenko (Barawenko), Helene Erna’, 4; 6.1.2/82487998_1, ITS DAWL.
41 Ibid., 5; 6.1.2/82487999_1, ITS DAWL.
42 Ibid., 6; 6.1.2/82488000_1, ITS DAWL.
43 Ibid.; 6.1.2/82488000_1, ITS DAWL.
44 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Gauthier, Gerhard’, 25 May 1948, 3; 6.1.2/82488003_1, ITS DAWL.
45 Ibid., 4; 6.1.2/82488004_1, ITS DAWL.
46 Ibid., 6; 6.1.2/82488006_1, ITS DAWL.
47 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Morisse, Monika’, 25 May 1948, 6; 6.1.2/82488025_1, ITS DAWL.
48 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Kudinow, Walentin, n.d. (May 1948), 5; 6.1.2/82488032_1, ITS DAWL.
49 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Kutiak, Maria’, 18 May 1948, 1; 6.1.2/82488053_1, ITS DAWL.
50 Ibid., 2; 6.1.2/82488054_1, ITS DAWL.
51 Ibid., 8; 6.1.2/82488060_1, ITS DAWL. EUCOM was the US replacement for the Allied Control Authority.
52 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Pitschmarga, Walla’, 26 Apr. 1948, 7; 6.1.2/82488130_1, ITS DAWL.
53 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Sweschenetz (Hurler), Boris (Karl), 1 June 1948, 6; 6.1.2/82488201_1, ITS DAWL. ‘Very lovable child’ is on p.1 on this report: 6.1.2/82488196_1, ITS DAWL.
54 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Summary on the German Foster Home Placements’, 2 July 1948, 3; 6.1.2/82487981_1-82487983_1, ITS DAWL.
55 From the ten children's case files, which are among the 10,000 on record in ITS sub-unit 6.3.2.1, it is only possible to say for certain what happened to seven of them. The documentation is missing from the case files of Morisse, Kudinow and Kutiak, although a file was created for each of them.
56 See the documents in Gerhard Gauthier's case file: 6.3.2.1/84236930#1-84236967#1, ITS DAWL. On Bad Aibling, see Höschler, Christian, Home(less): The IRO Children's Village Bad Aibling, 1948–1951 (Berlin: epubli, 2017)Google Scholar.
57 That is, for those for whom we can find out what happened: Sweschenetz, Myczkowska, Baranenko, Pitschmarga and Szenkowicz.
58 See Mrs Kaiser's statement at 6.3.2.1/84394092#2, ITS DAWL.
59 Cornelia Heise to UNRRA Team 1063, 19 June 1947; 6.3.2.1/84394101#1, ITS DAWL. The Polish Liaison Officer gave permission to repatriate the child on 20 Dec. 1947: 6.3.2.1/84394115#1, ITS DAWL.
60 Strauss, Bayerisches Landesjugendamt (Munich), to OMGB Public Welfare Branch, 5 Mar. 1948; 6.3.2.1/84394119#1, ITS DAWL.
61 Kenneth J. Maccormac, Deputy Chief, Public Welfare and DP Br., OMGB, to Director, IRO and Miss Maylan, Children Center, Prien, 9 Mar. 1948; 6.3.2.1/84394121#1, ITS DAWL.
62 J. Bikart, PRC Senior Representative for Germany and US Zone, to Miss Marjorie M. Farley, IRO, Area No. 7, 29 Dec. 1949; 6.3.2.1/84394180#1, ITS DAWL.
63 Dr Kopp, Kreisjugendamt, Mindelheim, to IRO, 10 Oct. 1951; 6.3.2.1/84394217#1, ITS DAWL.
64 L. Wijsmuller, Child Welfare Officer, ‘Note for File’, 22 Oct. 1951; 6.3.2.1/84394220#1, ITS DAWL. See also Eleanor Ellis to Landesjugendamt, 23 Jan. 1952, advising looking into the foster family adopting Stefania; 6.3.2.1/84394221#1, ITS DAWL.
65 ‘Survey of Children Established in German Economy. U.S. Zone: Baranenko, Helene, b. 21.1.1944 – USSR’; 6.3.2.1/84152639#1, ITS DAWL. German law prevented couples with children of their own from adopting. This changed the following year and the Hocheders immediately adopted Helene (Erna).
66 ‘Chronological Record: Pitschmarga, Walla’; 6.3.2.1/84434588#2, ITS DAWL.
67 Anna M. C. Woltjer, Child Care Officer, IRO Area 5, ‘Fosterhome visit in order to check the present situation’, 4 May 1950; 6.3.2.1/84434637#1, ITS DAWL.
68 Heise to Director, IRO Area No. 6 (Gauting), 22 July 1948; 6.3.2.1/84375600#1, ITS DAWL.
69 K[nut] Okkenhaug, summary of Jugendamt Neuburg report on Maria Szenkowicz, June 1947; 6.3.1.2/84477945#1, ITS DAWL.
70 PCIRO Child Search Division, Ludwigsburg, index card for Maria Szenkowicz, 27 Oct. 1947; 6.3.2.1/84477929#1, ITS DAWL.
71 Child Search Division to Central Information Bureau for Displaced Persons, Executive Committee of the Union of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Moscow, n.d.; 6.3.2.1/84477937#1/7938#1, ITS DAWL. Child Search Division to Polski Czerwony Krzyz, Warsaw, 10 Sept. 1947; 6.3.2.1/844779471#1, ITS DAWL.
72 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Foster Home Investigation: Szenkowicz, Maria’, 18 May 1947 [sic, 1948 is meant], 8; 6.1.2/82488158_1/8159_1, ITS DAWL; for decision firmly in favour of resettlement, see Babinski to Heise, 24 May 1948, re: Foster Home Investigation for Szenkowicz Maria, 9–10 Years Old, Polish Ukrainian; 6.3.2.1/84477964#1, ITS DAWL.
73 R. Mussin Pushkin, Senior ITS Officer, to Mrs. M. Steinmetz-Vondracek, Field Representative, ITS IRO Area 7, Munich-Pasing, 22 Oct. 1948; 6.3.2.1/84477979#1, ITS DAWL.
74 Miss T. Bruwer, Area Child Care Officer, Area 5 Hqs IRO, to Miss Eleanor Ellis, Zone Child Care Officer, IRO Headquarters, Bad Kissingen, 29 Oct. 1948; 6.3.2.1/84477980#1, ITS DAWL. OMGB's refusal to grant permission for removal was sent to Eleanor Ellis on 30 Dec. 1948: 6.3.2.1/84477985#1.
75 Herbert H. Meyer, Chief, Child Search Branch, to The Director, IRO Area No.5, 17 Feb. 1949; 6.3.2.1/84477986#1/7987#1, ITS DAWL.
76 See Ethel Starner, Area Child Care Officer, IRO Hqs Area 5, to ITS Esslingen, 1 Mar. 1949; 6.3.2.1/84477989#1, ITS DAWL.
77 Eleanor Ellis to E.B. Cox, Director, IRO Area 7, Munich, 31 Mar. 1949; 6.3.2.1/84477991#1, ITS DAWL.
78 Ethel Starner, ‘Pre-Hearing – Summary’, 20 Feb. 1951; 6.3.2.1/84477995#3, ITS DAWL. HICOG was the High Commission for Occupied Germany; it replaced the ACC in 1949 and existed until 1955.
79 There are case files, usually of older children, where letters and other documents exist which testify to their views. In general, however, the children's voices cannot be heard directly.
80 Charlotte Babinski, ‘Summary on the German Foster Home Placements’, 2 July 1948, 3; 6.1.2/82487983_1, ITS DAWL.
81 Although given what we know from other contexts, especially the removal of Jewish children from non-Jewish families, it sounds very plausible. See the works in note 6.
82 Davidson for Heise, Memo to Field Representative Munich, IRO No. 7 HQ's, 3 June 1948; 6.1.2/82487958, ITS DAWL.
83 Heise to Babinski, 23 July 1948; 6.1.2/82487979_1, ITS DAWL.
84 Brosse, Thérèse, War-Handicapped Children: Report on the European Situation (Paris: UNESCO, 1950), 22Google Scholar.
85 Cornelia D. Heise to Eileen Blackey, 30 June 1947, re: Removal of Children from German Care: Report on Current Situation. Here Heise noted that Military Government policy in the US Zone ‘continues not only to reflect a policy contrary to the reported recommendations of the Department of State, but is becoming progressively restrictive and rigid. Public Welfare Branch, O.M.G.B. gave notice to UNRRA on 28/4/47 that it will in the future withhold approval for removal of children who are being cared for in foster homes.’ 6.1.2/82486150-6151, ITS DAWL.
86 Babinski, ‘Summary on the German Foster Home Placements’, 3; 6.1.2/82487983, ITS DAWL.
87 Before concurring, one should bear in mind Wolf's comment, in Beyond Anne Frank, 337, made on the basis of an analysis of hidden Dutch Jewish children's post-war experiences, that ‘blood was rarely thicker than water’ and that ‘what matters is a connection with a caring adult, even if he or she is not the biological parent.’
