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Rethinking Church–State Relations in Seventeenth-Century Philippines: The Guerrero-Hurtado de Corcuera and Pardo-Audiencia Controversies
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 March 2024
Abstract
The early modern Philippine archipelago is often described as being under the power of a frailocracy with a far-reaching impact. From a microhistorical approach of ecclesiastical contentiousness, I argue that the intermittent clashes between and inside the two pillars of colonial rule—the civil and ecclesiastical powers—belie the church's overarching control over state affairs. The church was not a monolithic unit in the Philippines, but was rather highly fragmented, especially in distant Asian enclaves, and it was not independent, but relied on royal patronage, diplomacy, and transnational networks. Using archival materials, official reports, religious manifestos, and royal appointments and decrees, I focus upon two significant case studies of the two exiled archbishops of Manila, Fray Hernando Guerrero, OSA, and Felipe Pardo, OP, to explore factionalism, negotiation, and microlevel political constellations as a way to approach conflicting church–state relations in seventeenth-century Philippines from a more nuanced perspective.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of American Society of Church History
References
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7 On this issue, see the pioneering study by Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos XVI y XVII) [Municipal Life in Manila (16th and 17th Centuries] (Cordoba, Spain: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997). An updated review from an urban perspective can be found in Pedro Luengo, Manila, 1645 (London: Routledge, 2020).
8 John N. Schumacher, SJ, Readings in Philippine Church History (Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila UP, 1987), 18–21.
9 Archivo General de Indias, Seville [hereafter, AGI], Filipinas 1, N.242.
10 AGI, Indiferente 452, L. A13, ff.34r–35v.
11 AGI, Filipinas 77, N.51, ff.1r–1v.
12 AGI, Filipinas 77, N.51, f.4r; AGI, Filipinas 80, N 215. On the activities of this influential prelate, see Alexandre Coello de la Rosa, “‘Una persona santa y de vida inculpable’: fray Pedro de Arce y la tercera sede vacante en el arzobispado de Manila (1630–1634)” [“A Saintly and Blameless Person”: Friar Pedro de Arce and the Third Vacant See in the Archbishopric of Manila (1630–1634)]. Hispania Sacra 74: 150 (2022): 525–538.
13 AGI, Filipinas 347, L.1, ff.18v–19v.
14 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.1r; Isacio Rodríguez, Historia de la Provincia Agustiniana del Smo. Nombre de Jesús de Filipinas [The Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus of the Philippines of Spain] (Valladolid, Spain: Estudio Agustiniano, 1965–1994), vol. 10, 402.
15 Rodríguez, Historia, vol. 10, 402.
16 Juan Ferrando, Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las islas Filipinas. . ./ [History of the Dominican Fathers of the Philippines] (Madrid: Imp. M. Rivadeneyra, 1870), vol. 2, 254–255.
17 Horacio de la Costa, The Jesuits in the Philippines, 1581–1768 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 377–403.
18 Picazo Muntaner, “Redes de poder . . .,” 3–5; Francis B. Galasi, “Jesuits in the Philippines: Politics and Missionary Work in the Colonial Setting” (master's thesis, City University of New York, 2014), 28. For a work that looks at how artwork provides insights into the relationship between Governor-General Hurtado de Corcuera and the Jesuits, see Pedro Luengo, “Mundialización y tráfico artístico intra-asiático en Manila durante la Unión Ibérica” [Mundialization and Intra-Asiatic Artistic Trade in Manila during the Iberian Union], in El Greco en su IV Centenario: Patrimonio Hispánico y diálogo intercultural. XX Congreso Español de Historia del Arte [El Greco in his Fourth Centennary: Hispanic Heritage and Intercultural Dialogue. XX Spanish Congress of Art History] (Toledo, Spain: Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 2016), 631–646.
19 Francisco Moreno, Historia de la Santa Iglesia Metropolitana de Filipinas . . . [History of the Holy Metropolitan Church of the Philippines] (Manila: Imprenta de “El Oriente,” 1877), 212; Charles H. Cunningham, The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies. As Illustrated by the Audiencia of Manila (1583–1800) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1919), 426.
20 AGI, Filipinas 74, N. 118, f.920v.
21 Pedro Murillo Velarde, Historia de la Provincia de Filipinas de la Compañía de Jesús . . . [History of the Society of Jesus in the Philippines . . .] (Manila: Nicolás de la Cruz Bagay, 1749), f.86v. See also Picazo Muntaner, “Redes de poder . . .,” 6.
22 On the nepotism of Governor Hurtado de Corcuera, see Oswalt Sales Colín, “La Inquisición en Filipinas: El caso de Mindanao y Manila. Siglo XVII” [The Holy Office in the Philippines: The case of Mindanao and Sulu], Inquisición Novohispana 1 (2000): 261.
23 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.86v.
24 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, ff.1r–2r; AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40.
25 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.2r.
26 AGI, Filipinas 74, f.920v.
27 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40.
28 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40.
29 De la Costa, The Jesuits, 378–379.
30 Manuel Bastias Saavedra, “Decentering Law and Empire: Law-Making, Local Normativities, and the Iberian Empires in Asia,” in Norms beyond Empire. Law-Making and Local Normativities in Iberian Asia, 1500–1800, ed. Manuel Bastias Saavedra (Leiden: Brill & Nijhoff, 2022), 15.
31 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.86r.
32 Agustín Mª de Castro, Misioneros agustinos en el Extremo Oriente, 1565–1780 (Osario Venerable, 1780) [Augustinian Missionaries in the Far East, 1565–1780 (Venerable Ossuary, 1780)] (Madrid: CSIC, 1954), 137.
33 Galasi, Jesuits in the Philippines, 32.
34 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.87r.
35 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.89v.
36 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.121.
37 AGI, Filipinas 77, N.57.
38 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.118, f.919v.
39 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.88r.
40 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40.
41 Castro, Misioneros, 139–140; De la Costa, The Jesuits, 379–380.
42 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40. My translation.
43 AGI, Filipinas 74, ff.920v–921r.
44 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.88v.
45 Castro, Misioneros, 141.
46 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.89r.
47 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.3r.
48 AGI, Indiferente 193, N.21, f.101r.
49 Alexandre Coello de la Rosa, “A tumba abierta: el arzobispo Felipe Pardo y la Compañía de Jesús (1677–89)” [All Out: The Archbishop of Manila, Felipe Pardo, OP and the Society of Jesus (1677–1689)], Anales del Museo América 27 (2019): 279–302.
50 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.4r.
51 Pablo Fernández and José Arcilla, “Relación Sumaria del Destierro del Ilustrísimo Señor Don Fray Hernando Guerrero Arzobispo de Manila (1636)” [Summary Account of the Banishment of the Most Illustrious Lord Don Fray Hernando Guerrero Archbishop of Manila (1636)], Philippiniana Sacra 9, no. 25 (1974): 142.
52 Castro, Misioneros, 142.
53 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.3r.
54 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.118, f.928r.
55 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 152.
56 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.3r.
57 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.118, f.919r.
58 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90.
59 Dr. Briceño was provisional judge and general visitor of the archbishop until his death in 1635 (AGI, Filipinas 77, N.51, f.2r).
60 In 1638, Juan de los Cobos was appointed canon of the cathedral chapter of Manila (AGI, Filipinas 1005, N.64). Two years later he entered the Society of Jesus (AGI, Filipinas 347, L.3, f.42r).
61 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.2r.
62 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.118, f.926r.
63 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.3r. In all Spanish sources, the Spanish referred to the Filipino natives, whether they be Tagalogs, Cebuanos, or Ilocanos, as Indians, which was the same term used for the conquered peoples of Hispanic America.
64 AGI, Filipinas 85, N.90, f.3r.
65 AGI, Filipinas 74, N.118, f.919r.
66 José Montero y Vidal, Historia General de las Filipinas. . ./ [General History of the Philippines. . ./] (Madrid: Imp. de Manuel Tello, 1887), vol. I, 197.
67 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 144.
68 Cédulas de ruego y encargo were official documents that required and ordered a stalled mandate to be immediately implemented. Guillermo F. Margadant, “El recurso de fuerza en la época novohispana. El frente procesal en las tensiones entre Iglesia y Estado en la Nueva España,” Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de México 172–174 (1991): 111–112.
69 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 144.
70 Ibid., 146.
71 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.5r.
72 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 148; Castro, Misioneros, 139–140.
73 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 149–151.
74 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.10r.
75 Fernández y Arcilla, “Relación,” 154.
76 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.9r.
77 The lieutenant's son, Don Juan de Olaso y Achótegui, was the treasurer of the ecclesiastical chapter, so it is easy to understand that he did not wish to be responsible for the archbishop's forced exile.
78 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, ff.5r-6r.
79 De la Costa, The Jesuits, 380–381; Castro, Misioneros, 143–145.
80 Casimiro Díaz/Gaspar San Agustín, OSA, Conquistas de las islas Filipinas, Segunda Parte [Conquests of the Philippines, Second Part] (Valladolid, Spain: Luis N. de Gaviria, 1890), 337; Castro, Misioneros, 153–154.
81 Diego de Oña, Labor evangélica. Ministerios apostólicos de los obreros de la Compañía de Jesús. Segunda Parte [Work of Evangelization of the Society of Jesus in the Philippine Islands], ed. Alexandre Coello and Verónica Peña (Madrid: Sílex, [1701] 2021), f.1322r.
82 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.89v; Castro, Misioneros, 147.
83 Castro, Misioneros, 145.
84 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.6r.
85 De la Costa, The Jesuits, 381; Castro, Misioneros, 146–147.
86 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.40.
87 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.7r.
88 De la Costa, The Jesuits, 611; Eduardo Descalzo, “La Compañía de Jesús en Filipinas (1581-1768): Realidad y representación” [The Society of Jesus in the Philippines (1581-1768): Reality and Representation] (PhD diss., Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, 2015), 669.
89 AGI, Filipinas 8, R.3, N.36, f.7r.
90 The text is included by Friar Gaspar de Villarroel Ordóñez (Quito, 1587–Charcas, 1665), OSA, in his Gobierno eclesiástico y pacífico y unión de los dos cuchillos, pontificio y regio [Pacific and Ecclesiastical Government, and Union of the Two Swords, Papal and Royal], vol. 2 (Madrid: Domingo García Morrás, 1656), 160.
91 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.137r.
92 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.137r.
93 Murillo Velarde, Historia, f.137v; De la Costa, The Jesuits, 382.
94 Núria González Alonso, “Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, Gobernador de Panamá y de Filipinas” [Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, Governor of Panama and the Philippines], Anales del Museo de América 20 (2012): 201.
95 Emma H. Blair and James A. Robertson, ed. [hereafter, BR], The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, vol. 39 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903–1909), 244.
96 Marta Mª Manchado López, “Notas para el estudio del pontificado de fray Felipe Pardo, OP” [Notes for the Study of the Rule of Friar Felipe Pardo], in Actas del III Congreso Internacional sobre los Dominicos y el Nuevo Mundo [Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress about the Dominicans and the New World] (Granada, Spain: Fundación Instituto Bartolomé de Las Casas, 1991), 779–794.
97 Vicente de Salazar, Historia de la provincia de el Santissimo Rosario de Philipinas, China y Tunking, del sagrado Orden de Predicadores: Tercera parte en que se tratan los sucesos de dicha Provincia desde el año de 1669 hasta el de 1700 . . . [History of the Province of the Most Holy Rosary of Philippines, China and Tunking, of the Sacred Order of Preachers: Third Part in Which the Events of the Said Province from the Year 1669 to 1700 Are Treated . . .] (Manila: Imp. del Colegio-Universidad de Santo Thomas, 1742).
98 BR, The Philippine Islands, 39: 244.
99 Marta Mª Manchado López, “Los zambales filipinos en la segunda mitad del siglo XVII. Evangelización, idolatría y sincretismo” [The Filipino Zambales in the Second Half of the 17th Century. Evangelization, Idolatry, and Syncretism], in Un mar de islas, un mar de gentes. Población y diversidad en las islas Filipinas [A Sea of Islands, a Sea of Peoples. Population and Diversity in the Philippines], ed. Marta Mª Manchado and Miguel Luque (Córdoba, Spain: Universidad de Córdoba, 2014), 169. My translation.
100 Fray Cristóbal de Pedroche accused Governor Vargas of nepotism. In 1681 the crown had issued a royal decree to designate Don Luis de Pineda y Matienzo as castellano (or commander-in-chief) of the port of Cavite. However, Governor Vargas disregarded the orders and appointed one of his most trusted men, Sergeant Major Juan de Robles. See Cristóbal de Pedroche, Breve, y compendiosa relacion de la estrañèz, y destierro del señor Arçobispo, Don Fray Phelipe Pardo . . . Arçobispo de Manila . . . [Brief, and Compendious Relation of the Exile, and Banishment of the Lord Archbishop, Don Fray Phelipe Pardo . . . Archbishop of Manila. . .] (Hospital de San Gabriel, May 24, 1683), f.3r).
101 Anonymous (Dominic?), Copia de una carta, escrita al Padre Fray Alonso Sandin, de la Orden de Predicadores, Definidor, y Procurador General de la Provincia del Santo Rosario de Philipinas en esta Corte; en que da noticia del estado de aquellas Islas [Copy of a Letter Written to Fr. Alonso Sandin, of the Order of Preachers, Definitor and Procurator General of the Province of the Holy Rosary of Philippines in this Court, in which He Informs about the State of Those Islands] (Madrid, 1683), ff.1r–14v.
102 Juan Sánchez, “Brief Relation on Events in the City of Manila, in the Filipinas Islands, June 15, 1683,” in BR, The Philippine Islands, 39: 256.
103 Federico Palomo, “Cultura religiosa, comunicación y escritura en el mundo ibérico de la Edad Moderna” [Religious Culture, Communication, and Writing in the Iberian World of Modern History], in De la tierra al cielo. Líneas recientes de investigación en Historia Moderna [From Earth to Heaven. Recent Lines of Research in Modern History], ed. Eliseo Serrano (Zaragoza, Spain: CSIC, 2013), 78–79.
104 Juan de Vargas, Manifiesto jurídico, ff.21v–22r.
105 AGI, Filipinas 75, N. 15, ff.2r–3r; Raimundo Verart, Manifiesto por la justificación de D. Fr. Phelipe Pardo, Arzobispo de la ciudad de Manila en las Islas Philipinas en orden a la absolución, y penitencia del Maestre de Campo D. Juan de Vargas Hurtado, y exhumación de los cuerpos de dos ministros togados [Manifesto for the Justification of D. Fr. Phelipe Pardo, Archbishop of the city of Manila in the Philippines in Order to the Absolution and Penance of the Maestre de Campo D. Juan de Vargas Hurtado, and the Exhumation of the Bodies of Two Magistrates] (Madrid, 1689), f.8v.
106 Unknown, “A Curious Relation of Events in the City of Manila since the Arrival of Ships in the Year 1684, June 8, 1685”, in BR, The Philippine Islands, 139: 77–78.
107 AGI, Filipinas, 75, N.15, ff.1r–4r.
108 Anonymous (Dominican?), Copia de una carta, f.1v; Pedroche, Breve, ff.1r–12r; Schumacher, Readings in Philippine Church History, 122; De la Costa, The Jesuits, 497.
109 Vargas, Manifiesto jurídico, ff.16r–16v.
110 Juan Sánchez, “Brief relation on events. . .,” in BR, The Philippine Islands, 139: 69–70.
111 Pedroche, Breve, ff.10r–10v; BR, vol. XXXIX, 210. He was not released at that moment: instead, Ortiz de Covarrubias changed his guards and had him imprisoned for fourteen months, seven of them as a recluse, which seriously affected his physical and spiritual health. AGI, Filipinas 78, N. 20.
112 Anonymous (Dominican?), Copia de una carta, f.3v; Pedroche, Breve, y compendiosa relación, ff.7r–8r; Verart, Manifiesto, f.7v; Huertas, Reparos, f.7v; Victoriano Vicente, El padre Alonso Sandin, OP, Procurador a Cortes, 1640–1701 [Father Alonso Sandin, OP, Procurator to the Courts, 1640–1701] (Madrid: Imp. Sáez, 1976), 60.
113 Juan Sánchez, “Brief Relation on Events . . .”, in BR, The Philippine Islands, 39: 170.
114 Anonymous (Dominican?), Copia de una carta, f.14v; Pedroche, Breve, ff.8v, 11v; Vicente, El padre Alonso Sandin, 62–63.
115 Pedroche, Breve, f.9r.
116 Luciano P. R. Santiago, “The Hidden Light: The First Filipino Priests,” Philippine Studies 31, no. 2 (1983): 141.
117 Pedroche, Breve, ff.10r–10v.
118 Cunningham, The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies, 422–423.
119 Carmen Yuste López, Emporios transpacíficos. Comerciantes mexicanos en Manila (1710–1815) [Transpacific Emporiums. Mexican Merchants in Manila (1710–1815)] (Mexico City: UNAM, 2007), 55–56.
120 Yuste, Emporios transpacíficos, 56.
121 Pedroche, Breve, y compendiosa relación . . ., f.4v.
122 AGI, Filipinas 74, Microfilm AGI, 64, ff.1024r–1025r.
123 Pedroche, Breve, y compendiosa relación, f.4v.
124 Antonio de las Huertas, Reparos al Memorial que estampado ha publicado el padre Luis de Morales, de la Compañía de Jesús, que sobre su contenido hace fray Antonio de las Huertas, del orden de los predicadores (ca. 1680) [Objections to the Memorial that Father Luis de Morales, of the Society of Jesus, published, which were made by Friar Antonio de las Huertas, of the Order of Preachers] (ca. 1680), Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla (BUS), Fondo Antiguo, A 096/082(05), ff.4r–4v.
125 De las Huertas, Reparos, f.4v; De la Costa, The Jesuits, 494–495.
126 Antonio M. Jaramillo, Memorial al Rey Nuestro Señor por la provincia de la Compañía de Jesús de las islas Filipinas en satisfacción de varios escritos y violentos hechos con que a dicha provincia ha agraviado el reverendo arzobispo de Manila don fray Felipe Pardo del orden de Santo Domingo [Memorial to the King Our Lord by the Province of the Society of Jesus of the Philippines in Response to Various Writings and Violent Acts with which the Reverend Archbishop of Manila, Don Felipe Pardo of the Order of Santo Domingo, has Offended the Said Province] (Madrid, 1689), Archivo Histórico de la Compañía de Jesús de Castilla (before Toledo), Filipinas, shelf 2, box 96. Bundle 1157, f.170r.
127 Luis de Morales, Copia de un Memorial que estampado ha publicado el padre Luis de Morales, de la Compañía de Jesús [Copy of a Memorial that Father Luis de Morales, of the Society of Jesus, has Published], Fondo Antiguo BUS, Signatura A 096/082(05), f.3r.
128 De las Huertas, Reparos, ff.4v–5v.
129 BR, The Philippine Islands, 39: 208–209; Vicente, El padre Alonso Sandin, 37.
130 Coello, “A tumba abierta . . .,” 279–302.
131 John N. Schumacher, The Making of a Nation: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Filipino Nationalism (Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila UP, 2008 [1991]), 14.
132 Díaz-Trechuelo, “Relaciones Iglesia-Estado en Filipinas . . .,” 89. My translation.
133 Elliot, John H., “Religions on the Move,” in Religious Transformation in the Early Modern Americas, ed. Kirk, Stephanie and Rivett, Sarah (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 31Google Scholar.
134 Bertrand, Romain, “Where the Devil Stands: A Microhistorical Reading of Empires as Multiple Moral Worlds (Manila–Mexico, 1577–1580),” Past and Present, Supplement 14 (2019): 83–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.