Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-27T04:51:23.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

What Chinese Internet Users “Like” to Read: Selective Exposure in a Restricted Information Environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 April 2024

Clara Wang*
Affiliation:
Yenching Academy, Peking University, Beijing, China
Sean J. Westwood
Affiliation:
Department of Government, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
*
Corresponding author: Clara Wang; Email: cwang23@protonmail.com

Abstract

We study the phenomenon of selective exposure in China's restricted online information environment. Through an experimental survey study, we measure to what extent features of online news, such as popularity (i.e. number of “likes”), influence information selection among Chinese internet users (“netizens”). We find evidence of preferences for news information according to news topic and the nationalist sentiments of individuals. Generally, for news about domestic affairs, Chinese netizens prefer articles that take the opposite position of the government; for foreign affairs, they prefer articles aligned with the government's position. However, nationalistic individuals are more likely to select domestic affairs articles congruent with the Chinese government's issue framing. We also find social endorsements to be highly influential on news selection behaviour. Popular posts with many “likes” attract Chinese netizens to the point where they select content they may not otherwise read, even though the internet environment is easily manipulated.

摘要

摘要

我们研究中国网络信息控制环境中选择性接触的现象。利用一项实验性调查问卷,我们测试了在线新闻的特征在多大程度上影响中国互联网用户(“网民”)的信息选择。例如,受欢迎程度(即“点赞”数量)。我们找到对新闻信息的偏好因新闻主题和个人民族主义情绪而异的证据。 一般来说,对于内政新闻,中国网民更喜欢与政府立场相反的文章,而对于国际事务新闻,中国网民更喜欢与政府立场一致的文章。 然而,民族主义人士更有可能选择与中国政府的问题框架相符的内政文章。 我们还发现社会认可对新闻选择行为有很大影响。 尽管互联网环境很容易被操纵,但有很多“点赞”的热门帖子会吸引中国网民,致使他们选择原本可能不会阅读的内容。

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of SOAS University of London

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aldrich, John, Lu, Jie and Kang, Liu. 2015. “How do Americans view the rising China?” Journal of Contemporary China 24(92), 203221.10.1080/10670564.2014.932148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandurski, David. 2008. “China's guerrilla war for the web.” Far Eastern Economic Review 171(6), 4144.Google Scholar
Bandurski, David, and Qian, Gang. 2011. “China's emerging public sphere: the impact of media commercialization, professionalism, and the internet in an era of transition.” In Shirk, Susan (ed.), Changing Media, Changing China. New York: Oxford University Press, 3876.Google Scholar
Baum, Matthew A. 2002. “Sex, lies, and war: how soft news brings foreign policy to the inattentive public.” The American Political Science Review 96(1), 91109.10.1017/S0003055402004252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Matthew A., and Gussin, Phil. 2008. “In the eye of the beholder: how information shortcuts shape individual perceptions of bias in the media.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 3(1), 131.10.1561/100.00007010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beiser, Elana. 2020. “Record number of journalists jailed worldwide.” Committee to Protect Journalists, 15 December, https://cpj.org/reports/2020/12/record-number-journalists-jailed-imprisoned. Accessed 30 December 2020.Google Scholar
Bond, Rod, and Smith, Peter B.. 1996. “Culture and conformity: a meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task.” Psychological Bulletin 119(1), 111137.10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cairns, Christopher, and Carlson, Allen. 2016. “Real-world islands in a social media sea: nationalism and censorship on Weibo during the 2012 Diaoyu/Senkaku crisis.” The China Quarterly 225, 2349.10.1017/S0305741015001708CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Yuyu, and Yang, David Y.. 2019. “The impact of media censorship: 1984 or brave new world?” American Economic Review 109(6), 22942332.10.1257/aer.20171765CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CNNIC (China Internet Network Information Center). 2017. “39th statistical report on internet development in China,” https://cnnic.com.cn/IDR/ReportDownloads/. Accessed 24 February 2018.Google Scholar
CNNIC. 2019. “44th statistical report on internet development in China,” https://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/201908/t20190830_70800.htm. Accessed 30 August 2019.Google Scholar
Coe, Kevin, Tewksbury, David, Bond, Bradley J., Drogos, Kristin L., Porter, Robert W., Yahn, Ashley and Zhang, Yuanyuan. 2008. “Hostile news: partisan use and perceptions of cable news programming.” Journal of Communication 58(2), 201219.10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00381.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, Kate. 2019. “Facebook and Twitter say China is spreading disinformation in Hong Kong.” The New York Times, 19 August, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/19/technology/hong-kong-protests-china-disinformation-facebook-twitter.html. Accessed 8 September 2019.Google Scholar
Cook, Sarah. 2019. “Social credit incentives, elite jailings, #MeTooUyghur.” China Media Bulletin (133), https://freedomhouse.org/china-media/china-media-bulletin-social-credit-incentives-elite-jailings-metoouyghur-no-133. Accessed 2 March 2020.Google Scholar
Deibert, Ronald, Palfrey, John, Rohozinski, Rafal and Zittrain, Jonathan. 2010. Access Controlled: The Shaping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/8551.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dilliplane, Susanna, Goldman, Seth K. and Mutz, Diana C.. 2013. “Televised exposure to politics: new measures for a fragmented media environment.” American Journal of Political Science 57(1), 236248.10.1111/j.1540-5907.2012.00600.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earley, P. Christopher. 1989. “Social loafing and collectivism: a comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of China.” Administrative Science Quarterly 34(4), 565581.10.2307/2393567CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egorov, Georgy, Guriev, Sergei and Sonin, Konstantin. 2009. “Why resource-poor dictators allow freer media: a theory and evidence from panel data.” American Political Science Review 103(4), 645668.10.1017/S0003055409990219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, Dieter. 1981. “Postdecisional preference for decision-relevant information as a function of the competence of its source and the degree of familiarity with this information.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 17(1), 5167.10.1016/0022-1031(81)90006-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, Mary, and Miller, Blake. 2017. “Can the Chinese government really control the internet? We found cracks in the Great Firewall.” The Washington Post, 21 February, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/21/can-the-chinese-government-really-control-the-internet-we-found-cracks-in-the-great-firewall/. Accessed 28 April 2017.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, and Zaller, John. 1989. “Sources of popular support for authoritarian regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 33(2), 319347.10.2307/2111150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, Seth K., and Mutz, Diana C.. 2011. “The friendly media phenomenon: a cross-national analysis of cross-cutting exposure.” Political Communication 28(1), 4266.10.1080/10584609.2010.544280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hainmueller, Jens, Hangartner, Dominik and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2015. “Validating vignette and conjoint survey experiments against real-world behavior.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(8), 23952400.10.1073/pnas.1416587112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, Rongbin. 2015. “Manufacturing consent in cyberspace: China's ‘fifty-cent army’.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 44(2), 105134.10.1177/186810261504400205CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazelbarth, Todd. 1997. The Chinese Media: More Autonomous and Diverse – Within Limits. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence.Google Scholar
Hobbs, William R., and Roberts, Margaret E.. 2018. “How sudden censorship can increase access to information.” American Political Science Review 112(3), 621636.10.1017/S0003055418000084CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, Geert, and Bond, Michael Harris. 1988. “The Confucius connection: from cultural roots to economic growth.” Organizational Dynamics 16(4), 521.10.1016/0090-2616(88)90009-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, Haifeng, and Yeh, Yao-Yuan. 2019. “Information from abroad: foreign media, selective exposure and political support in China.” British Journal of Political Science 49(2), 611636.10.1017/S0007123416000739CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto, and Hahn, Kyu S.. 2009. “Red media, blue media: evidence of ideological selectivity in media use.” Journal of Communication 59(1), 1939.10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jansen, Sue Curry, and Martin, Brian. 2003. “Making censorship backfire.” Counterpoise 7(3), 515.Google Scholar
Jaros, Kyle, and Pan, Jennifer. 2018. “China's newsmakers: official media coverage and political shifts in the Xi Jinping era.” The China Quarterly 233, 111136.10.1017/S0305741017001679CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jean Tsang, Stephanie. 2019. “Cognitive discrepancy, dissonance, and selective exposure.” Media Psychology 22(3), 394417.10.1080/15213269.2017.1282873CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Gary, Pan, Jennifer and Roberts, Margaret E.. 2013. “How censorship in China allows government criticism but silences collective expression.” The American Political Science Review 107(2), 326343.10.1017/S0003055413000014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Gary, Pan, Jennifer and Roberts, Margaret E.. 2017. “How the Chinese government fabricates social media posts for strategic distraction, not engaged argument.” American Political Science Review 111(3), 484501.10.1017/S0003055417000144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, and Meng, Jingbo. 2011. “Reinforcement of the political self through selective exposure to political messages.” Journal of Communication 61(2), 349368.10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01543.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koettl, Christoph, Xiao, Muyi, Tabrizy, Nilo and Khavin, Dmitriy. 2020. “Video: China is censoring coronavirus stories. These citizens are fighting back.” The New York Times, 23 February, https://www.nytimes.com/video/world/asia/100000006970549/coronavirus-chinese-citizens.html. Accessed 3 January 2021.Google Scholar
Kuang, Xianwen. 2018. “Central state vs local levels of government: understanding news media censorship in China.” Chinese Political Science Review 3(2), 154171.10.1007/s41111-018-0091-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuang, Xianwen, and Wei, Rining. 2018. “How framing of nationally and locally sensitive issues varies? A content analysis of news from Party and non-Party newspapers in China.” Journalism 19(9–10), 1435–51.10.1177/1464884917731179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehman-Wilzig, Sam N., and Seletzky, Michal. 2010. “Hard news, soft news, ‘general’ news: the necessity and utility of an intermediate classification.” Journalism 11(1), 3756.10.1177/1464884909350642CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebman, Benjamin L. 2011. “The media and the courts: towards competitive supervision?” The China Quarterly 208, 833850.10.1017/S0305741011001020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorentzen, Peter. 2014. “China's strategic censorship.” American Journal of Political Science 58(2), 402414.10.1111/ajps.12065CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupton, Robert, and Jacoby, William. 2016. “The reliability of the ANES feeling thermometers: an optimistic assessment.” Paper presented at the 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 7 January 2016.Google Scholar
Marvin, Rob. 2018. “Breaking down VPN usage around the world.” PC Mag, 21 September, https://www.pcmag.com/news/363869/breaking-down-vpn-usage-around-the-world. Accessed 8 September 2019.Google Scholar
Messing, Solomon, and Westwood, Sean J.. 2014. “Selective exposure in the age of social media: endorsements trump partisan source affiliation when selecting news online.” Communication Research 41(8), 1042–63.10.1177/0093650212466406CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mummolo, Jonathan. 2016. “News from the other side: how topic relevance limits the prevalence of partisan selective exposure.” The Journal of Politics 78(3), 763773.10.1086/685584CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pan, Jennifer. 2017. “How market dynamics of domestic and foreign social media firms shape strategies of internet censorship.” Problems of Post-Communism 64(3–4), 167188.10.1080/10758216.2016.1181525CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pan, Jennifer, and Xu, Yiqing. 2018. “China's ideological spectrum.” The Journal of Politics 80(1), 254273.10.1086/694255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reilly, James. 2014. “A wave to worry about? Public opinion, foreign policy and China's anti-Japan protests.” Journal of Contemporary China 23(86), 197215.10.1080/10670564.2013.832519CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Margaret E. 2018. Censored: Distraction and Diversion Inside China's Great Firewall. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Robertson, Graeme. 2015. “Political orientation, information and perceptions of election fraud: evidence from Russia.” British Journal of Political Science 47(3), 589608.10.1017/S0007123415000356CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scotton, James F., and Hachten, William A.. 2010. New Media for a New China. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.10.1002/9781444319118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shi, Tianjian, Lu, Jie and Aldrich, John. 2011. “Bifurcated images of the US in urban China and the impact of media environment.” Political Communication 28(3), 357376.10.1080/10584609.2011.572479CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shuster, Simon, and Ifraimova, Sandra. 2018. “A former Russian troll explains how to spread fake news.” TIME, 21 February, https://time.com/5168202/russia-troll-internet-research-agency/. Accessed 23 July 2018.Google Scholar
Simon, Joel. 2014. The New Censorship: Inside the Global Battle for Media Freedom. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Skovsgaard, Morten, Shehata, Adam and Strömbäck, Jesper. 2016. “Opportunity structures for selective exposure: investigating selective exposure and learning in Swedish election campaigns using panel survey data.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 21(4), 527546.10.1177/1940161216658157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stockmann, Daniela. 2010. “Who believes propaganda? Media effects during the anti-Japanese protests in Beijing.” The China Quarterly 202, 269289.10.1017/S0305741010000238CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stockmann, Daniela. 2013. Media Commercialization and Authoritarian Rule in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stroud, Natalie Jomini. 2008. “Media use and political predispositions: revisiting the concept of selective exposure.” Political Behavior 30(3), 341366.10.1007/s11109-007-9050-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, Natalie Jomini. 2010. “Polarization and partisan selective exposure.” Journal of Communication 60(3), 556576.10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01497.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timmons, Heather. 2015. “How The New York Times is eluding censors in China.” Quartz, 5 April, https://qz.com/374299/how-the-new-york-times-is-eluding-chinas-censors. Accessed 20 October 2023.Google Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Banks, Antoine, Hutchings, Vincent L. and Davis, Anne K.. 2009. “Selective exposure in the internet age: the interaction between anxiety and information utility.” Political Psychology 30(4), 591613.10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00716.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Vivian. 2020. “They documented the coronavirus crisis in Wuhan. Then they vanished.” The New York Times, 14 February, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/14/business/wuhan-coronavirus-journalists.html. Accessed 3 March 2020.Google Scholar
Wong, Edward. 2017. “Xinjiang, tense Chinese region, adopts strict internet controls.” The New York Times, 10 December, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/10/world/asia/xinjiang-china-uighur-internet-controls.html. Accessed 22 July 2018.Google Scholar
Xin, Xin. 2018. “Popularizing Party journalism in China in the age of social media: the case of Xinhua News Agency.” Global Media and China 3(1), 317.10.1177/2059436418768331CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Yuan. 2018. “China's WeChat hits 1bn user accounts worldwide.” Financial Times, 5 March, https://www.ft.com/content/8940f2d0-2059-11e8-a895-1ba1f72c2c11. Accessed 22 July 2018.Google Scholar
Yuan, Li. 2020. “Coronavirus weakens China's powerful propaganda machine.” The New York Times, 26 February, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/26/business/china-coronavirus-propaganda.html. Accessed 3 March 2020.Google Scholar
Zhao, Yuezhi. 1998. Media, Market, and Democracy in China: Between the Party Line and the Bottom Line. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar