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102. LOSC, supra note 95, arts. 57, 76.

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114. See e.g. LOSC, supra note 95, arts. 2, 33, 56, 76.

115. To that end the LOSC makes direct reference to a “land-locked State” which is a “State which has no sea-coast”: LOSC, supra note 95, art. 124(1)(a).

116. A distinction needs to be drawn between a state which is a geographic archipelago, such as Japan, and an “archipelagic State” for the purposes of Part IV of the LOSC, which is entitled to draw archipelagic baselines from which maritime claims can be asserted; see discussion in Rothwell and Stephens, supra note 96 at Chapter 8.

117. LOSC, supra note 95, art. 13(1) defines a low-tide elevation as “a naturally formed area of land which is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high tide”.

118. This is highlighted by the case of the island state of Nauru which comprises a single land mass of 21 km² but which generates maritime zones consistent with the LOSC of 430,000 km²: Nauru Country Study Guide (Washington: International Business Publications, 2011), Vol. 1 at 49.

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125. None of the other judges in the Monte Confurco and Volga cases raised similar issues.

126. An example could be Macquarie Island (Australia) which is 1500 km to the south of Tasmania and sits approximately at halfway between Australia and Antarctica in the Southern Ocean. The island is 128 km² but has no permanent population other than for itinerant scientists of which approximately sixteen over-winter. Nevertheless, Australia has claimed the full set of maritime zones from the island which have not been subject of protest: see Australian Antarctic Division, “Living on Macquarie Island”, online: Australian Government <http://www.antarctica.gov.au>.

127. LOSC, supra note 95, art. 13(1).

128. See Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh where the ICJ made a distinction between Middle Rocks and South Ledge, in which the latter were classified as a low-tide elevation: Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, supra note 61 at paras. 291−9; quoting with approval discussion in Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions Between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), [2001] I.C.J. Rep. 40 at paras. 205−6.

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136. See e.g. Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), [2009] I.C.J. Rep. 61 at paras. 187−8.

137. Nicaragua v. Colombia, supra note 65 at para. 203.

138. Ibid., at paras. 202, 203.

139. Ibid., at para. 153.

140. Ibid., at para. 211.

141. For example, the PRC has been reportedly applying political and economic pressures against neighbouring countries claiming competing territorial title over islands in the South China Sea: see e.g. International Crisis Group (ICG), “Stirring Up the South China Sea (I)” Asia Report No. 223 (23 April 2012), online: ICG <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/north-east-asia/223-stirring-up-the-south-china-sea-i.pdf>; International Crisis Group, “Stirring Up the South China Sea (II): Regional Responses” Asia Report No. 229 (24 July 2012), online: ICG <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/north-east-asia/229-stirring-up-the-south-china-sea-ii-regional-responses>; Carlyle A. THAYER, “China's New Wave of Aggressive Assertiveness in the South China Sea” (30 June 2011), online: Center for Strategic & International Studies <http://csis.org/files/publication/110629_Thayer_South_China_Sea.pdf>.